अफ़ग़ानिस्तान

thumb|250px|afaganistan ka dhvaj afaganistan ya afagan islamik ganarajy janboodvip (eshiya) ka ek desh hai. yah dakshini madhy eshiya mean avasthit desh hai jo charoan or se zamin se ghira hua hai. prayah isaki ginati madhy eshiya ke deshoan mean hoti hai par desh mean lagatar chal rahe sangharshoan ne ise kabhi madhy poorv to kabhi dakshin eshiya se jo d diya hai. isake poorv mean pakistan, uttar poorv mean kashmir tatha chin, uttar mean tazikistan, kazakistan tatha turkamenistan tatha pashchim mean eeran hai. sthiti :- 290u.se 380 350 u.a., 60050' poo.se 750 poo.de.. kshetraphal: 2,50,00 vargamil. janasankhya: 1,59,44,275 (sanh‌ 1969 ee.): pathan 60%, tajik '30, 7%, uzabek 5% hazara (mugla) 3%. aphaganistan mean jatiy ekata ka abhav hai. pakistan ki sima ke nikat vajiri, aphridi evan maangal adi pathan jatiyaan rahati haian jo b di hi svechchhachari haian.

• afaganistan ka nam afagan aur stan se milakar bana hai jisaka shabdik arth hai afaganoan ki bhoomi. stan is kshetr ke kee deshoan ke nam mean hai jaise- pakistan, turkamenistan, kazakhastan, hindustan ityadi jisaka arth hai bhoomi ya desh. afagan ka arth yahaan ke sabase adhik vasit nasl (pashtoon) ko kahate haian.
• afaganistan kee samratoan, akramanakariyoan tatha vijetaoan ki karmabhoomi raha hai. inamean sikandar, farasi shasak dara pratham, turk, mugal shasak babar, muhammad gori, nadirashah ityadi ke nam pramukh haian.
• afaganistan aryoan ki puratan bhoomi hai. eesa ke 1800 sal pahale aryoan ka agaman is kshetr mean hua. eesa ke 700 sal pahale isake uttari kshetr mean gaandhar mahajanapad tha jisake bare mean bharatiy srot mahabharat tatha any granthoan mean varnan milata hai. yah mahabharat kal mean gaandhar mahajanapad tha. kauravoan ki mata gandhari aur prasiddh mama shakuni gaandhar ke hi the.
• vedoan mean varnit somaras ka paudha jise som kahate haian afaganistan ki paha diyoan par hi paya jata hai.
• sikandar ke faras vijay abhiyan ke tahat afaganistan bhi yoonani samrajy ka aang ban gaya. isake bad yah shakoan ke shasan mean ae. hindi-yoonani, hindi-yooropiy, hindi-eerani shasakoan ke yahaan varchasv ko lekar yahaan jhag de bhi hue aur unhoanne yahaan shasan bhi kiya. bharatiy maury, shuang, kushan adi shasakoan ne yahaan shasan kiya.
• maury aur kushanoan ne yahaan buddhadharm ka prachar, prasar kiya. kamboj, pashto aur baiktriya ka shasan yahaan raha.
• shak skithiyoan ke bharatiy aang the. eesapoorv 230 mean maury shasan ke tahat afaganistan ka sanpoorn ilaqa a chuka tha par mauryoan ka shasan adhik dinoan tak nahian raha. isake bad parthiyan aur phir sasani shasakoan ne faras mean kendrit apane samrajyoan ka hissa ise bana liya.
• sasani vansh islam ke agaman se poorv ka akhiri eerani vansh tha. araboan ne khorasan par sanh 707 mean adhikar kar liya. samani vansh, jo farasi mool ke, par sunni the, ne 987 eesvi mean apana shasan gazanaviyoan ko kho diya jisake phalasvaroop lagabhag sanpoorn afaganistan gazanaviyoan ke hathoan a gaya.
• gor ke shasakoan ne gazani par 1183 mean adhikar kar liya. madhyakal mean kee afagan shasakoan ne dilli ki satta par adhikar kiya ya karane ka prayatn kiya jinamean lodi vansh ka nam pramukh hai. isake alava bhi kee muslim akramanakariyoan ne afaganashahoan ki madad se hindustan par akraman kiya tha jisamean babar, nadirashah tatha ahamadashah abdali shamil hai. afaganistan ke kuchh kshetr dilli saltanat ke aang the. british senaoan ne bhi kee bar afaganistan par akraman kiya. afaganistan ke pramukh nagar haian -

1. rajadhani qabul
2. kaandhar

lo jiraga (graiand naishanal aseanbali) dvara sitanbar, 1964 mean svikrit evan aktoobar, 1965 mean lagoo ne sanvidhan ke anusar aphaganistan mean sansadiy janatantr ki sthapana ho gee hai jisamean vidhan sanbandhi sabhi adhikar janata dvara nirvachit dvisadani sansadh ko prapt haian. muhammad zahirashah sanvaidhanik rashtraghyaksh (badashah) aur d aau. abdul zahir vartaman pradhanamantri haian. badashah ko pradhanamantri tatha sarvochch nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ki niyukti ka adhikar hai. vidhanapalika, nyayapalika tatha karyapalika ityadi shasan ki ikaiyaan alag alag haian aur apane apane kshetr mean prabhusattasanpann haian. sanpoorn desh ko 29 praantoan mean vibhakt kar diya gaya hai aur har praant ka prashasan gavarnar ke dvara chalaya jata hai . kabul, kapisa, paravan, varadak, logar, nanagarahar, paktaya, kahavaz, tatha uragan, jabul, kanjar uroozagan, bamiyan, herat, badaghis, pharayab, jaujagan, balkh, halamand, pharah, nimarooz, gor, samangan, kunadooz, takhar, badakhyaan, baghalan tatha puleankhapuri, laghamaman or kunar praantoan ke nam haian. yahaan sunni musalamanoan ki prajanata hai. shiya musalamanoan ki janasankhya desh ki janasankhya ki keval ath pratishat hai. kabul aphaganistan ki rajadhani evan pramukh nagar hai; isaki janasankhya 4,80,383 (sanh‌ 1959) hai. kandhar, herat, mazar-e-sharif aur jalalabad adi any mukhy nagar hai. rajyabhashaean pashto aur farasi haian.

uttar mean turkistan ke maidani khand ko chho dakar aphaganistan gaganachuanbi parvatoan evan ooanche patharoan ka desh hai, jo janbashila (shel) aur choone ke pattharoan ke bane haian. inake tal mean grenait tatha sainait patthar milate haian. matsy (devoniyan) aur karbanaprad (karbaniferas) yugoan ke pahale yah kshetr tethis sagar ka ek aang tha. bad mean yah oopar uthane laga tatha yahaan ke patharoan evan parvatoan ka nirman tritiy kalp (tarshiyari era) mean himalay aur alps ke nirman ke sath hua.

aphaganistan ki mukhy parvatashreni hiandookush hai. yah pamir pathar se dakshin pashchim tatha pashchim ki or lagabhag 600 mil tak chalakar herat praant mean lupt ho jati hai. koh-e-baba, phiroz koh, aur koh-ai-safed isake any bhagoan ke nam haian. isaki dakshini shakha suleman parvat hai jae poorv mean toraghar tatha syah koh aur pashchim mean spinaghar tatha saphed koh kahi jati hai. hiandookush parvat ke pramukh darre khaibar, gomal evan bolan hai. ye darre vanijyapath ka kam dete haian. prachin kal mean inhian darro se hokar sarvapratham ary log tatha bad mean musalaman, mugal tatha any videshi bharat mean pahuanche.

aphaganistan chhah prakritik bhagoan mean baanta ja sakata hai:

thumb|250px|panjashir ghati, afaganistan (1) baiktriya athava aphagani turkistan, jo hiandookush parvat ke uttar amoo tatha usaki sahayak kuandaj tatha kokcha nadiyoan ka maidani bhag hai.
(2) hiandookush parvat, jisaki ausat uanchaee 15,000 phut se adhik hai. isaki chotiyaan , jo 18,000 phut se bhi ooanchi haian, sarvada himachchhadit rahati haian.
(3) badakhshaan, jo uttari poorvi aphaganistan mean, turkistan ke poorv, ek ramanok pradesh hai. isi ke aantargat 'chhota pamir' parvat hai.
(4) kabulistan, jisake aantargat kabul ka pathar aur charadeh tatha koh-e-daman ki samriddh ghatiyaan haian. kabul ke pathar ki ooanchaee, 5,000 se 6,000 phut tak hai, yah kabul nadi tatha usaki sahayak logar, panjashir evan kunar se sianchit, samriddh evan ghani abadi ka kshetr hai.
(5) hajara, jo madhy aphaganistan ka parvatiy evan viral abadi ka pradesh hai.
(6) dakshini maroosthal, jisake pashchimi bhag mean sistan evan poorv mean regastan namak maroosthal haian. ye maroosthal desh ka chauthaee bhag chheanke hue haian. is kshetr ka jalaparivah (drenej) hamun--e--helamaand tatha gaud--e--jirreh namak jhiloan mean jama hota haian.
amoo, hari rood, murghab, helamaand, kabul adi aphaganistan ki pramukh nadiyaan haian. amoo, tatha kabul ke atirikt any nadiyaan aant:sthal parivahi (inalaiand drenejavali) haian. amoo nadi roshan evan daravaz namak parvat shroniyoan se nikalakar lagabhag 480 mil tak aphaganistan ki uttari sima nirdharit karati hai. helamaand aphaganistan ki sarvadhik lanbi nadi hai jae 600 mil tak hajara evan dakshini pashchimi maroosthal se hoti huee sistan kshetr mean girati hai.

aphaganistan khanij padartho mean dhani hai, parantu unaka vikas abhi tak nahian ho saka hai. nimn koti ka koyala ghoraband ki ghati mean aur latabad ke samip milata hai. isaki sanchit nidhi 1,50,00,000 tan kooti jati hai, kiantu varshik utpadan 10,00 tan se badhakar 1967-68 mean 1,51,000 tan ho gaya tha. namak katagham kshetr mean milata hai. isaka varshik utpadan 1967-68 mean lagabhag 31,000 tan tha. any khanij padartho mean taanba hiandookush mean, sisa hajara mean chaandi hazarajat evan panjashir ki ghati mean, loha ghoraband ki ghati evan kaphiristan mean, gandhak mayamana praant evan kamard ki ghati mean, abhrak panjashir ki ghati mean, esbestas jidra jile mean, kromiyam logar ki ghati mean tatha sona, manik, phirojae, vaidoory (laipis laijooli) evan any bahumooly patthar badakhshaan mean milate haian. hal mean khanij tel uttari aphaganistan ke herat praant mean prapt hua hai.

aphaganistan ki jalavayu ati shushk hai. yahaan dainik tatha varshik tapaantar adhik tatha vayuveg atyant tivr rahata hai. grishm rritu mean ghatiyaan tatha kam uanche pathar ushn ho jate haian. amoo ki ghati, kadhar evan jalalabad mean tap 110 se 150 pharenahait tak chadh jata hai tatha dakshin pashchim ke marusthal mean dhool evan balukayukt prachand havaean 100 mil prati ghante se bhi adhik veg se chalati haian. kabul, gazani, hajara adi 3,000 phut se adhik uanche kshetroan mean tap 00 pha. se bhi kam ho jata hai. yahaan janavari tatha pharavari ke mahinoan mean tusharapat aur march tatha aprail mean varsha hoti hai. aphaganistan ki ausat varsha 11 ianch hai. isake adhikashan mean varsha aparyapt hoti hai. dakshin pashchim ke marusthal vishesh roop se shushk haian, jahaan varsha aparyapt hoti hai. dakshin pashchim ke marusthal vishesh roop se shushk haian, jahaan varsha char ianch se bhi kam hoti hai. 6,000 phut se ooanche sthaloan mean vasant tatha sharad rrituean ati priy aur manamohak hoti haian.

jangal 6,000 se 10,000 phut ki ooanchaee tak milate haian. in jangaloan mean konadhari (chi d adi) vriksh tatha shridaroo (larch) ki prachurata hai. in vrikshoan ki chhaya mean gulab evan any suandar phool ugate haian. 3,000 se 6,000 phut ki uanchaee mean baanj (ok) evan akharit ke vriksh milate haian. 3,000 phut se niche jangali jaitoon (aauliv), gulab, ber tatha babool pae jate haian.

aphaganistan pashupalak evan krishipradhan desh hai. isaka adhikaansh parvatiy evan shushk hone ke karan krishi ke lie upayukt nahian hai. phir bhi yahaan ke maidanoan evan anek urvar ghatiyoan mean naharoan adi dvara sianchaee karake phal, sabjiyaan evan ajh upajae jate haian. kuchh bhagoan mean bina sianchaee ki krishi bhi prachalit hai. ja de mean gehooan, jau tatha matar aur garami mean dhan, makka, jvar, bajara ki phasalean hoti haian. tho de pariman mean ruee, tanbakoo, tatha gaanja bhi paida kiya jata hai. kuchh varsho se helamaand tatha argdaab nadiyoan par jal--sangrah--t dag aur hari rood par baandh banakar krishi ko vikasit kiya jae raha hai. yahaan grishmakal ki shushk jalavayu phal upajane ke lie upayukt hai. aangoor, shahatoot aur akharot ke atirikt seb, nashapati, ber, aanjir, khoobani, sataloo adi phal bhi upajae jate haian. aangoor visheshat: bharat ko niryat kiya jata hai.

yahaan ki mukhy sanpatti bhe dean tatha any pashusamuday haian aur pradhan udyam pashupalan hai. katagham aur majar ke kshetroan mean sarvotkrisht jati ke gho de pale jate haian. aandakhooee ke nikat bhe d ka sarvotam cham da milata hai. moti pooanchh ki bhe dean, jo dakshin mean milati haian, oon maans tatha charbi ke lie prasiddh hai. oon ka varshik utpadan lagabhag 7,000 tan hai.

aphaganistan mean keval chhote udyogoan ka vikas ho paya hai. kabul nagar mean diyasalaee, batan, joota, sangamaramar tatha lak di ke saman banae jate haian. kuandan mean rooee dhunane aur jibel--us--siraj, pul--e--khumari tatha gulabahar mean sooti kap de bunane ke karakhane haian. baghalan evan jalalabad mean chini ke karakhane haian. hal mean jibel--us--siraj mean simeant udyog ka vikas hua hai.

is rajy mean avagaman ki samasya jatil hai jahaan reloan ka sarvatha abhav hai aur s dakoan ki sthiti achchhi nahian hai. at: motar ga diyoan ka prayog dinodin badhata ja raha hai.

charoan or any deshoan se ghire hone ke karan aphaganistan ka 90% vaideshik vyapar pahale pakistan dvara hota tha, kiantu 2 joon, 1955 ee. ko aphaganistan tatha roos ke bich panchavarshiy parivahan sandhi hone ke bad aphaganistan ka vyapar vishesh roop se roos dvara hone laga hai. mukhy ayat sooti kap da, chini, jatu ki bani samagri, pashu, chay, kagaj, petrol, simeant adi haian, jo visheshat: bharat roos tatha pakistan se prapt hote haian. sookhe evan rasadar phal, masale, karakul namak charm, dariyaan, ruee evan kachcha oon yahaan ke mukhy niryat haian, jo pradhanat: bharat, roos, sanyukt rajy (amarika) tatha briten ko bheje jate haian.

itihas

18vian shatabdi ke madhy tak aphaganistan nam se vihit rajy ki koee prithakh‌ satta nahian thi at: aphaganistan ki bhaugolik sanjna ka usaki aitihasik prishthabhoomi ke sath upayog bahut kuchh 1747 ke poorv tak anuvanshik tha. isake ek sangathit rashtriy ekatantr ke roop mean uday hone se poorv is desh ka itihas atyant vaividhyapoorn hai.

aryo ke agamanakal (ee.poo. dvitiy tatha pratham sahasrabdi) mean rajy eerani jatiyoan dvara adhikrit the. bad mean kurooshh‌ ne in rajyoan ko hakhamani samrajy mean sammilit kar liya. ee.poo. chauthi shatabdi mean sikandar ne in rajyoan ko vijit kar liya. sikandar ke pashchath‌ paravarti yoonani shasak shakoan aur parthavoan dvara hata die ge. ee.poo. pratham shatabdi mean unapar kushanavansh ke shasakoan ka adhipaty raha jo kujul kadaphisis tatha kanishk ke kal mean apane poorn utkarsh ko prapt hua. kanishk ki mrityu ke pashchath‌ usaka samrajy adhik samay tak nahian tik saka, kianntu kushan shasak hiandookush ki dakshini poorvi ghatiyoan mean tab tak bane rahe jab tak shvet hoonoan ne unapar adhikar nahian jama liya. in hoonoan ne eesa ki paanchavian aur chhathi shatabdi mean aphaganistan ke uttari evan poorvi bhagoan par adhikar kar liya tha 7vian shatabdi eesvi ke madhy poorvi aphaganistan ki rajanitik avastha ka samyakh‌ varnan henatsaang ne kiya hai.

7vian shatabdi mean arabavijay ka jvar aphaganistan pahuancha. is akraman ki ek lahar sijistan hokar gujari, kiantu pratham tin shatabdiyoan mean yahaan se hone vale kabul vijay ke prayatn nishphal siddh hue. kabuli praant, any poorvi praantoan ki apeksha islamikaran ka pratirodh adhik samay tak karata raha. sulatan mahamood gajanavi (997-1030) ke kal mean aphaganistan ek mahanh‌ kiantu alpijivi samrajy ka pradhan keandr bana jisake aantargat eerak tatha kaispiyan sagar se ravi nadi tak ke vistrit bhoobhag the. mahood ke uttaradhikari guridoan dvara 1186 ee. mean parajit hue. tatpashchath‌ aphaganistan alp samay ke lie khvarizmi shahoan ke hathoan aya. 13vian shatabdi mean isapar mangoloan ne adhikar jama liya jo hiandookush ke uttar jam ge the. ugude ki mrityu ke bad mangol samrajy chhinn-bhinn ho gaya aur aphaganistan pharas ke ilkhamoan ke hisse p da. inhian ke prabhutv mean tajikistan ka 'kart' namak ek rajavansh shasanaroodh hua aur desh ke adhikaansh par pray: do shatabdiyoan tak shasan karata raha. aant mean taimoor ne akar is vansh ka aant kar dala tatha hirat vijay ke pashchath‌ uttari aphaganistan mean apane ko dridh kar liya.

16vian shatabdi ke aranbh mean, babar ke samay, ye rajy kabul aur kanjar mean keandrit ho ge the, jo bharatiy mugal samrajy ke praant ban ge. kiantu, hirat pharas ke shahoan ke adhikar mean chala gaya. ek bar aphaganistan pun: vibhajit hua, phalat: balkh ujabekoan aur kanjar eeraniyoan ke baant p da. 1708 mean kanjar ke glazaiyoan ne eeraniyoan ko nikal bhagaya aur 1722 mean pharas par akraman kar usapar apana asthayi shasan sthapit kar liya. 1737-38 mean nadirashah ne, jo pharas ke mahattam shasakoan mean se tha, kanjar dakhal kar kabul jit liya.

1747 mean nadirashah ke marane par kanjar ke aphagan saradaroan ne ahamad khaan (bad mean ahamadashah abdali ke nam se vikhyat) ko apana mukhiya chuna aur usake netritv mean aphaganistan ne itihas mean pratham bar ek svadhin shasanasata dvara shasit, apana rajanitik astitv prapt kiya. ahamadashah ne durrani rajavansh ki nianv dali aur apane rajy ka vistar pashchim mean lagabhag kaispiyan sagar, poorv mean panjab aur kashmir tatha uttar mean amoo dariya tak kiya.

19vian shatabdi mean aphaganistan dotaraphadabaya gaya; ek or roos amoo dariya tak badh aya aur doosari or briten uttar pashchim mean khaibar kshetr tak chadh aya. 1839 mean ek bharatiy briten sena ne kanjar, gajani aur kabul par adhikar kar liya. dostamuhammad ko hatakar shahashuja namak ek paravarti asaphal shasak ko amir bana diya gaya. is parivartan ke viruddh vahaan bhishan pratikriya utpann huee, phalat: shahashuja aur kee british adhikari talavar ke ghat utar die gaye. 1842 ke disanbar mean british sarakar ne aphaganistan ko khali kar diya aur dostamuhammad ko phir se amir hone ki svikriti de di. 1849 mean dostamuhammad ne sikkhoan ki british sarakar ke viruddh unaki l daee mean sahayata ki, phalat: peshavar ka kshetr hath se nikal gaya jo british bharat mean mila liya gaya. 1863 mean dost muhammad ne hirat ko eeraniyoan se pun: chhin liya. usake bete sherali khan ne roosiyoan ko svikriti to de di, kiantu british ejeantoan ko rakhane se inkar kar diya. isase dvitiy aphagan yuddh (1878-81) chhi d gaya, phalat: sherali khaan bhaga aur usaki mrityu ho gee. usake bete yakoob khaan ne british sarakar se ek sandhi ki. usane khaibar darre ke sath sima ke kee pradeshoan ko chho d diya aur briten ko aphaganistan ve vaideshik sanbanjaaian ko niyantrit karane ki svikriti de di. is prabandh ke visddh bh dakanevale janadvesh aur krodh ke parinamasvaroop british rejideant ki hatya huee aur yakoob khaan gaddi se utar diya gaya. tatpashchath‌ dostamuhammad ka pota abdurrahaman khaan amir ke roop mean many hua. abdurrahaman ne apana prabhutv kandhar aur hirat tatha bad mean kaphiristan tak badha liya. usane sthaniy jatiy saradaroan dvara niyantrit ek sashakt keandriy shasan sthapit karane, achchhi prakar se shikshit ek sthayi sena ko sangathit karane, vidrohoan ko kuchalane aur karavyavastha ko duroost karane ke lie aphaganistan ko adhunik rashtr ki bhaanti taiyar karane ki avashyakata ka path prashast kiya. abdurrahaman ke bete habibulla khaan ne, jae 1901 mean gaddi par baitha, mautarakaroan, teliphonoan, samacharapatroan aur kabul ke lie prakashayukt vidyuth‌ vyavastha ka samaranbh kiya .

1919 mean habibulla ke ek bhatije amanulla khaan ne gaddi sanbhali. usane turant aphaganistan ke poorn svarajy ki ghoshana ki aur gret briten se l daee chhe d di jo shighr hi ek sandhi se samapt ho gee. usake anusar gret briten ne aphaganistan ke poorn svatantray ko manyata di aur aphaganistan ne vartaman aiangloan aphaganistan sima svikar kar li.

amanulla ne amir ka pad samapt kar diya aur usake sthan par 'badashah' upadhi nijaerrit ki tatha sarakar ko ek keandrit pratinidhi rajatantr ke aantargat manyata di. usane aphaganistan ko adhunik banane ke lie vahaan vegavan tatha drut sujaroan ki badh la di. mullaoan ke jarmik aur khanoan (samantoan) tatha kabayali saradaroan ke laukik adhikaroan ke prati usaki chunauti ne unake prabal pratirodh ko janm diya jisake parinamasvaroop 1929 ka vidroh hua aur amanulla ko gaddi chho d videsh bhag jana p da. varsh ke bhitar hi pichhali l daiyoan ke ek yoddha muhammad nadir khaan ne pun: shakti arjit ki aur nadirashah ke roop mean rajyapramukh bana. 1933 mean kabul mean usaki hatya kar di gee aur usaka uttaradhikar muhammad jahirashah ko mila jae 1965 tak aphaganistan ka ekachhatr shasak raha.

bhasha tatha sahity

aphaganistan ki pradhan bhashaean pashto aur pharasi haian. pashto samanyat: aphagani jatiyoan ki bhasha hai jo aphaganistan ke uttari-poorvi bhag mean boli jati hai. kabul ka kshetr aur gajani mukhy roop se pharasi--bhasha--bhashi haian. rashtriy ekata ko badhane tatha shiksha ke vistar ko protsahit karane ke uddeshy se sarakar ne pashtoan ko rashtriy bhasha ke roop mean pratishthit karane ka prayatn kiya hai.

yadyapi vistrit roop se pashto bharatiy aryabhasha se nikali hai, phir bhi apane srot aur gathan mean yah eerani bhasha hai. dhvaniparivartanoan aur bahmagraharan ne pashtoan ko ek svaravyavastha di hai jisake aantargat aise bahut se shabd haian jinaki dhvanyatmakata pharasi bhasha ke lie aparichit hai. pashto ke tin akshar usake lie vilakshan lagate haian jo pharasi mean nahian prayukt hote.

sanh‌ 1940-41 mean abdul hee habibi ne sulema makoo dvara virachit 'tazakiratululiya' namak kavyasangrah ke kuchh aansh prakashit kie jo 11vian shatabdi ke rache batae ge haian. kiantu unaki pramanikata abhi poornat: sthapit nahian ho saki hai. ravarti ke anusar pashtoan mean likhi gee prachinatam kriti khoj nikali gee hai jo 1417 mean likhit shekhamali ki yoosufajaez namak itihas pustak hai. akabar ke shasanakal mean raushaniya aandolan ke puraskarta bayajid aansari (l. 1585) ne pashto mean kee pustakean likhian. usaka khairool-bayan atyant prasiddh kriti hai. khushal khaan khattak (l. 1694) ne , jo adhunik aphaganistan ka rashtriy kavi hai lagabhag sau kritiyoan ka pharasi se pashtoan mean anuvad kiya hai. usake pote afajal khaan ne tarikhi-murassa namak aphaganoan ka itihas likha. 18tian shatabdi mean avdurrahaman aur abdul hamid namak pashtoan ke do lokapriy kavi ho ge haian. 1872 mean vidyarthiyoan ke upayog ke lie kalid aphagani namak ek rachana rachi gee thi jisamean pashto gady aur pady ke namoone prapt hote haian. 1829 mean kharakov ke rajakiy roosi vishvavidyalay ke praphesar bi. dorn ne pashto ka aangreji vyakaran likha. pashto akadami ne abhi hal mean hi anek sahityik kritiyoan ka prakashan kiya hai.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

sanbandhit lekh

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