ऊष्मा

ooshma ek prakar ki oorja hai, jo do vastuoan ke bich unake tapantar ke karan ek vastu se doosari vastu mean sthanantarit hoti hai. sthanantaran ke samay hi oorja ooshma kahalati hai. vastu ka tap, vastu mean ooshma ki matra tatha vastu ke padarth ki prakriti par nirbhar karata hai, jabaki kisi vastu mean nihit ooshma us vastu ke dravyaman v tap par nirbhar karati hai. ooshma ek prakar ki oorja hai, jise kary mean badala ja sakata hai. isaka pratyaksh praman sabase pahale ramaphord ne diya. bad mean devi ne do barf ke tuk de ko apas mean ghisakar pighala diya. chuanki barf ko pighalane ke lie ooshma ka aur koee srot nahian tha, atah yah mana gaya ki barf ko ghisane mean kiya kary barf pighalane ke lie li gee avashyak ooshma mean badal gaya. bad mean jool ne apane prayogoan se is bat ki pushti ki ki "ooshma oorja ka hi ek roop hai." jool ne bataya ki jab kabhi kary ooshma mean badalati hai, ya ooshma kary mean badalati hai, to kie ge kary v utpann ooshma ka anupat ek sthiraank hota hai, ya ooshma ka yaantrik tulyaank kahate haian tatha isako Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {J} se soochit karate haian. ushma (aangreji mean hit) ki prakriti ka adhyayan tatha padarthoan par usaka prabhav jitana manav hit se sanbandhit hai utana kadachith‌ aur koee vaijnanik vishay nahian. ushma se pranimatr ka bhojan banata hai. vasant rritu ke agaman par ushma ke prabhav se hi kali khilakar phool ho jati hai tatha vanaspati kshetr mean ek ne jivan ka sanchar hota hai. isi ke prabhav se aande se bachcha banata hai. in karanoan se yah koee ashchary ki bat nahian ki puratan kal mean is balavanh‌, prabhavashil tatha upayogi abhikarta se manav prabhavit hua tatha usaki pooja aur archana karane laga. kadachith‌ isi karan manav ne soory ki pooja ki. prithvi par ushma ke lagabhag sanpoorn mahatvapoorn prabhavoan ka srot soory hai. koyala, tel, petrol, jinase hamean ushma prapt hoti hai, prachin yugoan se sanchit dhoop ka pratinidhitv karate haian.

itihas-ushma ke samany prabhavoan ka spashtikaran karane ke hetu agni-paramanuoan ka avishkar kiya gaya, jo padarth ke radhraeanan ke bich prachand gati se dau date hue tatha usake anuoan ko titar-bitar karate hue mane ge the. vichar tha ki isake phalasvaroop thos padarth drav mean tatha drav vashp mean parivartit hote haian.

vijnan ke aranbhik yug se lekar varmaman shatabdi ke praranbh tak ushma ki prakriti ke sanbandh mean do pratidvandvi parikalpanean sadharanataya chali aee haian. ek to hai ushik siddhaant (kailorik thyori) jisake anusar ushma ko ek ati sookshm lachila drav mana gaya tha jo padartho ke radhraeanan mean pravesh karake unake anuoan ke bich ke sthan ko bhar leta hai. doosara hai prachin yoonaniyoan dvara chalaya gaya siddhaant jisamean ushma ke adhunik siddhaant ka aankur paya jata hai. isake anusar ushma padarth ke kanoan ke drut kanpan ke karan hoti haian; at: is mat ke anusar ushma ka karan gati hai. is siddhaant ke poshak bahut dinoan tak alp mat mean rahe.

prekshan par adharit siddhaant ki rachana mean pratham prayatn lard bekan ne kiya tatha ve is parinam par pahuanche ki ushma gati haian. ianglaiand mean unake anuyayiyoan ke mat se yah 'gati' padarth ke anuoan ki thi. parantu yoorop ke adhikatar vaijnanikoan ke matanusar yah ek atisookshm tatha lachile drav ke kanoan ki mani gee jo padarth ke radhraeanan mean aant: pravisht hokar usake kanoan ke bich sthit mana gaya tha.

ushik siddhaant-ushik siddhaant ke anusar ushma ka karan ek ati lachile svapratikarshak tatha sarvavyapi drav ki kriya tha. is drav ke gun ye mane ge : yah ati lachila tha tatha isake kan paraspar pratikarshan karate the. is drav ko 'kailarik' nam diya gaya. pratikarshan gun ke karan jalane par yah drav ushma tatha prakash utpann karata hua mana gaya. 'kailarik' ke kan paraspar to pratikarshak the parantu sadharan padarth ke kanoan se akarshit hote mane ge. vibhinn padartho ke kan use vibhinn bal se akarshit karate the. yah drav anashy tathashh ajanma mana gaya.

ushik siddhaant ke anusar padarth 'kailarik' ki vriddhi se ushn hota tha tatha usake hhras se shital. padarth par ushma ke bhinn bhinn prabhavoan ko kailarik siddhaant ke anusar spashtikaran ke prayatn hote rahe. kuchh ka to spashtikaran saralata se ho gaya parantu kuchh ke lie any anek kalpanean karani p dian.

gharshan dvara ushmajanan ki ghatana manav ko adikal se jnat hai. kailarik siddhaant ke anusar isake spashtikaran ke prayatn kie ge, parantu ve santoshaprad n ho sake.

ushmagatiki-gharshan dvara ushma ke udbhav mean ek visheshata yah hai ki padarthoan ka jitana adhik gharshan kiya jata hai utani adhik matra mean ushma nikalati hai, at: is riti se anant matra mean ushma mil sakati hai. isaka spashtikaran kailarik mat se nahian ho sakata jisake anusar pratyek padarth mean simit matra mean ushma-drav rahata hai. vastut: yah kary tatha usase utpann ushma ke vishay mean jool ne mahatvapoorn prayog kie tatha vah yah siddh karane mean saphal hua ki kary tatha ushma mean tulyata hai. jab kary kiya jata hai tab ushma ki utpatti hoti hai. yadi kary tatha ushma ka man kramanusar ka (W) tatha u (H) hai to ka=joo uan (W=JH) yahaan joo (J) sthir hai tatha ise ushma ka yaantrik tulyaank kahate haian. at: joo (J) kary ki vahu matra hai jisase ek kailari ushma utpann ho. isaka man 4.18´107 arg prati kailari hai.

kauant roomaphord ne is vishay mean yah sujhav diya tha ki kary se ushmajanan ka karan gati hai. ab prashn uthata hai, 'kisaki gati?'

gatij siddhaant-padarth ki rachana anuoan tatha paramanuoan se huee hai. padarth ke tin roop hote haian : thos, drav tatha gais. yadi koee thos padarth ushn kiya jae to usake tap mean vriddhi hoti hai. ek nishchit tap par pahuanchakar yah galane lagata hai tatha drav roop mean parivartit ho jata hai. aur adhik ushn karane se drav ki tapavriddhi hoti hai tatha ek doosare nishchit tap par isaka vashpikaran aranbh ho jata hai. jab sanpoorn drav vashp mean parivartit ho jata hai tab ise gais kahate haian.

gatij siddhaant ke anusar padarth ke anu shashvat gati ki avastha mean rahate haian. anu ki gati padarth ke tap par nirbhar rahati hai. padarth jitana adhik ushn hota hai utani hi adhik prachand gati usake anuoan mean hoti hai. thos padarth mean anu ek madhyak sthiti ke charoan or pradolan karata hai. tapavriddhi se anupradolan mean vriddhi hoti hai tatha aant mean pradolan itana prachand ho jata hai ki anu apane sthan se prithak-prithak hokar idhar udhar any anuoan ke sthanoan par chala jata hai tatha apani navin sthiti mean prachandata se pradolan karane lagata hai. is avastha mean anuoan ki paraspar akarshan shakti, jo unako apane sthanoan par rakhati hai, itani mand ho jati hai ki tanik-si thes lagane se padarth ka roop parivartit ho jata hai. is avastha ko padarth ki taral avastha kahate haian. atev taral avastha mean anuoan mean dolan ke sath-sath raikhik gati bhi hoti hai. thos avastha ke anuoan mean dolan kriya ko prachand karane mean tatha unamean raikhik gati utpann karane mean ushma ki avashyakata hogi. yah ushma galan kishh gupt ushma ke tuly hoti hai.

ab yadi ham drav padarth ka kramash: tapan karean to anavik oorja mean vriddhi hogi tatha dravaprishth ke nikat ate hue kisi anu ki gati itani tivr ho sakati hai ki vah asapas ke any anuoan ke akarshan ka nirakaran karake drav ko chho dakar usake oopar ke sthan mean chala jae. is prakar prakshipt anuoan ka ek aantat: jab sanpoorn anu drav ko chho d dete haian to vah gais mean parivartit ho jata hai.

gais avastha mean anu saral rekhaoan mean chalate haian tatha paraspar takarate par unaki gati tatha disha mean parivartan hota hai. do anugami takkaroan ke bich ka mukt path saral rekhiy tatha ati nyoon hota hai. is path par chalatu hue drav avastha se gais avastha mean parivartan hone ke lie anuoan ko apane parasparik akarshan ke viruddh prithak hona p data hai. isake lie kary ki avashyakata hoti hai tatha yah kary vashpikaran ki gupt ushma ke tuly hota hai.

vikiran-ushma ka tarangavad-gharshan tatha sanghattan (takarane) se vastuoan ki iandriyagrahy shakti ka lop ho jata hai tatha ushma ka janan hota hai. yah kalpana hai ki in ghatanaoan mean gati ka kshay nahian hota varanh‌ vah keval sanpoorn vastu se usake pratyek kan mean sthanaantarit hoti hai. at: jab ek gatishil vastu gharshan athava sanghattan dvara roki jati hai to vastu ki maulik drishy gati ka aant nahian hota; parantu vah us vastu ke adrishy anuoan tatha paramanuoan mean chali jati hai.

kisi tapt vastu se kuchh doori par hamean ushnata ka abhas hota hai. yah ushma vastu se ham tak kaise aee? soory prithvi ke samast ushmik prabhavoan ka srot hai. soory se prakash tatha ushma donoan hi ate haian. prakash vyom (eethar) mean tarangagati ke karan hota hai, aisi kalpana hai. is kalpana ki pushti mean praman haian. isi prakar ushma bhi vyom mean tarangagati ke karan hoti hai. vikiran ushma, udaharanataya dhatu ke ek tapt khand se utsarjit ushma tatha prakash ke acharan yatharthat: ek saman hote haian. in donoan mean vastavik aantar, jisaka upalanbhan ho sakata hai, yah hai, ki prakash mean vikirn ushma ke samast lakshanoan ke atirikt drishti ki anubhooti ko prabhavit karane ka lakshan bhi hota hai.

at: prakash ke saman vikirn ushma bhi vyom mean tarangagati ke karan mani jati hai. ek tapt padarth ke anu tivr gati ki avastha mean hote haian athava kisi drut-avarti vikshobh ke keandr hote haian tatha ve vyom mean tarangean pradipt karate haian jo hamare tatha tapt vastu ke madhy prakashagati se chalati haian. jab ve hamare oopar girati haian to sharir dvara shoshit ho jati haian tatha hamare sharir ke anuoan mean tadanuroop gati ka karan hoti haian. is prakar hamean ushnata ka bodh hota hai. at: ushnata ka bodh tapt padarth se apasarit vyomatarangoan ke karan usi prakar hota hai, jis prakar dipt padarth se chakshu tatha ek dhvanit vastu se vayutarangoan dvara kan prabhavit hota hai.

kisi sthan par sthit padarth vyom ke satat kshobh ka srot mana jata hai. padarth ka pratyek kan kanpan karate hue vyom mean tarangoan ka janan karata hai. at: ham sadaiv charoan or se ati huee vikiranatarangoan mean doobe rahate haian. in tarangoan dvara hamean drishti tatha ushma ka bodh hota hai. yadi yah tarang nishchit avrittisimaoan ke bich ki hai to usase chakshu prabhavit hota hai tatha ise ham prakashatarang kahate haian. yah tarang hamare sharir ke anuoan mean vikshobh bhi utpann kar sakati hai aur is karan hamean ushnata ka bodh karati hai. mand kanpan ki tarangean chakshuoan ko prabhavit nahian karatian, ve keval sharir ko ushn karati haian. inhean avarakt kiranean (inaphra-red rez) kahate haian. drut kanpan ki tarangean chakshu ko prabhavit kar prakash ka bodh deti haian, unase ushnata ka bodh nahian ke saman hota hai. inhean ham drishy prakashatarang kahate haian.

is sanbandh mean agralikhit lekh bhi dekhean : ushmagatiki, ushmamiti, ushmayan, oorja, kvaantam yaantriki, kvaantam saankhyiki, tapamapan, tapavidyuth‌, vashpayan, vikiran.

1. mapani-shitoshnata ka anubhav praniyoan ki sparshedriy ka svabhavik gun hai. is anubhav ko matratmak roop mean vyakt karane ke lie ek paimane ki avashyakata p dati hai jisako tapakram (skel aauv teanparechar) kahate haian. apekshakrit adhik garam pratit honevali vastu ke vishay mean kaha jata hai ki usaka tap (teanparechar) adhik hai. padarthoan mean tapavriddhi ka karan yah hota hai ki unamean oorja (enarji) ke ek vishesh roop, ushma ki vriddhi ho jati hai. ushma sadaivashh ooanche tapavale padarthoan se nimn tapavale padarthoan ki or pravahit hoti hai aur usaki matra padarth ke dravyaman (mas) tatha tap par nirbhar rahati hai.

2. tapakram-chhoone se tap ka jo jnan prapt hota hai vah matratmak aur vishvasaniy nahian hota. isi karan is kary ke lie yaantrik upakaran prayukt hote haian jinako tapamapi athava tharmamitar kahate haian. sarvasadharan mean jin tharmamitaroan ka prachar hai unamean shishe ki ek chhoti khokhali ghuandi (balb) hoti hai jisamean para ya any drav bhara rahata hai. balb ke sath ek patali nali ju di rahati hai. tapiy prasaran (tharmal ekspaianshan) ke karan drav nali mean chadh jata hai aur usake yatharth sthan se tap ki digri ka bodh hota hai. is prakar ke tharmamitar 1654 ee. ke lagabhag florens mean taskani ke graiand dayook fardinaiand ne prachalit kie the. tapakram nishchit karane ke lie in tharmamitaroan ko sarvapratham pighalate hue shuddh him (baraph) mean rakhakar nali mean drav ki sthiti par chihn bana dete haian. seantigred paimane mean himaank ko shoony manate haian tatha isake aur kvathanaank ke bich ki doori ko 100 barabar bhagoan mean baant dete haian jinamean se pratyek ko digri kahate haian. ajakal is paimane ko selasiyas paimana kahate haian. pharenahait mapakram mean poorvokt himaank ko32° aur romar mean shoony digri manate haian kiantu pharenahait mean poorvokt himaank aur jal ke kvathannak ki doori 180 bhagoan mean aur romar mean 80 bhagoan mean vibhakt ki jati hai.

yadi do bhinn dravoan se tharmamitar banakar uparyukt vidhi se aankit kie jaean to himaank aur kvathanaank ko chho dakar any tapoan par samanyat: unake pathayaankoan mean bhed paya jaega. at: keval ushmagatiki (dr.) aankoan ko usi ke anusar shuddh kar lete haian. is paimane ko param tap (aibsolyoot teanparechar) athava kelvin mapakram bhi kaha jata hai aur isake pathayaank aangreji mean T se vyakt kie jate haian. yahaan tatha ushmagatikishh shirshak lekh mean param tap ko pa ya T se soochit kiya gaya hai. yah karno chakr par adharit hai aur isaka shoony paramashh shoony hota hai jisaka man-273.2°shh sean. hai aur jisase nyoonatar tap sanbhav nahian ho sakata.

poorvokt shishe-ke-bhitar-dravavale tapamapiyoan ki upayogita simit hi hoti hai.300° sean.se oopar pray: vidyutiy pratirodh aur tap vidyutiy (tharmoilektrik) tharmamitar prayukt hote haian. ati uchch tap ke mapanarth keval vikiran siddhaantoan par adharit uttapamapiyoan (payaromitaroan) ka prayog hota hai. shoony digri seantigred se niche gais tharmamitar, vidyutiy pratirodh tharmamitar, hiliyam-vashp-dab tharmamitar, aur param shoony ke nikat chuanbakiy pravritti (maiganetik saseptibiliti) par adharit tharmamitar prayukt hote haian. in sab tapamapiyoan ke aank ya to adarsh gais tharmamitaroan se milakar shuddh kie jate haian athava inake shodhan ke lie ushmagatiki ke siddhaantoan ka ashray liya jata hai. (vishesh vivaran ke lie tapamapan shirshak lekh dr..)

3. avasthaparivartan ushma ke prabhav se padarthoan mean parivartan kiya ja sakata hai aur kuchh asthayi yaugikoan ko chho dakar sab ka astitv gais, drav aur thos, in tinoan roopoan mean sanbhav hai. samany vayumandaliy dab par drav ka thos athava vashp mean parivartan nishchit tapoan par hota hai jinako himaank aur kvathanaank kahate haian. uparyukt dab par yadi ek gram padarth ka avasthaparivartan kiya jae to ushma ki ek nishchit matra ya to utpann athava shoshit hoti hai. isako gupt ushma (leteant hit) kahate haian. tap ki uchit vriddhi hone par sab thos drav mean badal jate haian aur isi prakar gaisoan ko nimnalikhit vidhiyoan se dravoan mean aur usake uparaant thanda karane par thosoan mean badala ja sakata hai. thos ke roop mean badali janevali aantim gais hiliyam hai jisako thos banane ke lie drav ko thanda karane ke sath hi usapar atyadhik dab bhi lagana p data hai.

pratyek gais ka apana ek kraantik tap (kritikal teanparechar) hota hai. yadi gais ka tap isase kam ho to keval dab badhane se hi use drav banana sanbhav hota hai, anyatha sarvapratham thanda karake usaka tap kraantik tap se niche le ate haian. drav ke roop mean badali janevali aantim gaisean vayu, haidrojan aur hiliyam haian. vayu ko kraantik tap ke niche thanda karane ke lie jool-tamasan-prabhav ka upayog karate haian. yadi koee uchch dab ki gais mahin chhedoan mean se hokar kam dab vale bhag mean nikali jae to vah pray: thandi ho jati hai. isi ko jool-tamasan-prabhav kahate haian. isaki matra bahut kam hoti hai. udaharanarth yadi chhed ke donoan aur dab ki matra kramanusar 50 vayumandal aur 1 vayumandal ho to sadharan tap hi hava keval 11.7° sean. thandi hoti hai. kiantu ek bar thandi honevali gais oopar uthakar anevali gais ko thandi kar deti hai. jab gais ke is thande aansh par jool-tamasan-prabhav p data hai to yah aur adhik thandi ho jati hai ki usaka tap kraantik tap se niche chala jata hai aur vah keval dab ke prabhav se hi drav mean badal jati hai. vayu ke dravan (likvifaikshan) ki do mashinean liande aur kl aaud-haeelaiand ke nam se prasiddh haian. pratham upakaran mean keval uparyukt vidhi ka hi prayog hota hai, kiantu doosare mean is vidhi ke atirikt gais ka kuchh aansh ek ianjin ke pistan ko chalata hai. at: kam karane ke karan yah aansh svat: thanda ho jata hai.

sadharan tap par haidrojan aur hiliyam ye donoan gaisean jool-tamasan-prabhav ke karan garam ho jati hai, parantu tap uchit matra mean kam hone par samany gaisoan ki tarah hi thandi hoti haian. at: in gaisoan ko pahale hi itana thanda kar lena avashyak hai ki is prabhav ka labh uthaya ja sake. debar ne 1898 mean haidrojan ko dravit vayu se thanda karane ke pashchath‌ liande ki uparyukt vidhi se drav mean parinat kiya. ons ne isi vidhi se 1908 mean aantim gais hiliyam ka dravan kiya, kiantu jool-tamasan-prabhav ka upayog karane se poorv isako drav haidrojan se thanda kar liya gaya tha.

vayumandaliy dab par hiliyam ka kvathanaank 4° pa (T) hai. dab ghatakar vashpan karane se 0.7° pa (T) tak pahuancha ja sakata hai. isase bhi kam tap ki utpatti sthiroshm vichuanbakan (aidiyabaitik dimaiganetizeshan) dvara ki ja sakati hai. is vidhi mean vishesh samachuanbakiy (pairamaiganetik) lavan prayukt hote haian. aise ek lavan ko chuanbakiy dhruvoan ke bich hiliyam gais se bhari nali mean latakaya jata hai. yah nali sthir tap ke hiliyam drav se ghiri rahati hai. chuanbakiy kshetr sthapit karane par chuanbakan-ushma (hit aauv maiganetizeshan) ko hiliyam drav khianch leta hai, at: tap sthir rahata hai. ab nali ki hiliyam gais nikal li jati hai jisase lavan ka hiliyam drav se ushmik prithakkaran (inasuleshan) ho jata hai. isake uparaant chuanbakiy kshetr hata lete haian. lavan ka vichuanbakan ho jata hai aur is kary mean ushma vyay hone se yah svat: thandha ho jata hai. is prakar tap ko lagabhag 0.001° pa tak ghataya ja sakata hai. nabhikiy vichuanbakan (nyookliyar dimaignetizeshan) dvara isase bhi nimn tap kishh prapti ho sakati hai.

4 tapiy prasaran-tapavriddhi hone par pray: sab vastuoan ke akar mean vriddhi hoti hai jisako tapiy prasaran kahate haian. yadi shoony tap par ayatan a0 (V0) ho to p° (t°) par sannikatat: ayatan nikalane ke lie nimnalikhit sootr lagoo hota hai:

ap =a0 (1+prap).

vt =V° (1+bt).

pra (b) ko prasaran gunaank kahate haian. tap mean adhik vriddhi hone par is sootr mean p (t) ke uchch ghat (pavar) bhi ate haian. thosoan mean poorvokt prakar ka sootr lanbaee ke prasaran ke lie bhi hota hai jisake gunaank ko pr (a) se vyakt karate haian aur rekhiy prasaran gunaank kahate haian. yah pra (b) ka 1/3 hota hai.

gaisoan aur dravoan ka prasaran gunaank bahut b da hota hai, at: usaka mapan apekshakrit saral hai. gaisoan mean dab aur ayatan donoan ka prasaran hota hai. yadi dab sthir ho to poorvokt sootr ayatan par poorn roop se lagoo hota hai. ayatan sthir hone par isi sootr mean a (V) ke sthan par da (P) likhakar dab da ka sootr ban jata hai. pra (b) donoan sootroan mean ek hi hai aur isaka man sab adarsh gaisoanshh mean 1.273 ke lagabhag hota hai. sab gaisean kraantik tap se bahut ooanche tap par adarsh gaisean hoti haian, kiantu yadi inaka kvathannak nikat n ho aur dab adhik n ho to samanyat: aksijan, naitrojan haidrojan or hiliyam ko adarsh gaisean kahate haian. sab adarsh gaisoan par nimnalikhit sootr lagoo hota hai :

da a = jh pa,

P V = R T,

jisamean da (P)dab aur a (V) ayatan hai. pa (T) param tap hai jisaki matra seantigred tap mean 273 jo dane par prapt hoti hai. jh (R) ko gais niyataank kahate haian. ek gram-anu (gram-m aaulikyool) gais ke lie isaki matra lagabhag do kalarishh athava 8.3 jool hoti hai.

thosoan ka prasaran gunaank bahut kam hota hai, at: isake mapan me vishesh vidhiyaan prayukt hoti haian. manibh (kristal) bahut chhote hote haian, at: unake prasaran ka mapan aur bhi dushkar hota hai. ek udaharan mean kristal pattika aur silika ki pattika ke bich mean prakashiy vyatikaran dhariyaan (aauptikal iantarafiyarens phranjez) utpann ki jati haian. tapavriddhi se dhariyaan sthanaantarit ho jati haian jisake mapan se gunaank nikala ja sakata hai. uchch sammiti (simetri) ke kristaloan ko chho dakar any kristaloan ke prasaranagunaank disha ke anusar bhinn hote haian. thosoan ke sanbandh mean grinaizan ka yah niyam hai ki pratyek dhatu ka prasaran gunaank usaki sthir dabavali vishisht ushma ka samanupati hota hai.

5. kalarimiti-ek gram pani ka tap 14.5°shh sean. se 15.5°shh sean. tak badhane mean jitani ushma ki avashyakata hoti hai use ek kalari kahate haian. any tap par pani ki 1° shtapavriddhi ke lie isase kuchh bhinn matra ki avashyakata hoti hai, par donoan ka aantar kabhi bhi 1/2 pratishat se adhik nahian hota. kisi 1 gram vastu mean 1° sean. tapaparivartan karanevali ushma ko usaki vishisht ushma (spesifik hit) kahate haian. vishisht ushma vi (S) ki kisi vastu ke dravyaman dr (m) gram ka tap p (t) digri sean. badhane mean dr vi p (mSt ) kalariyaan vyay hoti haian. kisi vastu ki vishisht ushma jnat karane ke lie sarvapratham usako ooanche tap tak garam karate haian aur phir usako ek aanshik roop se pani bhare baratan (kalarimapi) mean dal dete haian. vastu ke thandi hone mean jitani kalariyaan milian unako kalarimapi aur pani dvara prapt kalariyoan ke barabar rakhakar vishisht ushma ki ganana kar lete haian.

vishisht ushma nikalane ki ek any vidhi yah bhi hai ki padarth ke oopar itani bhap ko pravahit karean ki usaka tap badhakar bhap ke tap ke barabar ho jae. yadi is vidhi mean dr (m) gram bhap sanghanit (kanadens) hoti hai to usake pani banane mean d gu (m´L) kalari prapt hoti haian (gu (L)=gupt tap). isako padarth dvara shoshit ushma ke barabar rakhakar vishisht ushma ki ganana kar lete haian.

tapavriddhi ke samay bahy sthiti ke anusar padarthoan ki vishisht ushma ke anek man hote haian. ek to sthir ayatanavali vishisht ushma hoti hai jo usaki aantarik oorja se sanbandhit rahati hai. mapan kriya ke samay ayatan mean parivartan hone ke karan ayatanavriddhi ke lie kam (karm) karana p data hai aur tapavriddhi ke sath sath kuchh ushma ki is kam ke lie bhi avashyakata hoti hai. kam ki matra dab ke ashrit hai aur yadi yah dab sthir n ho to yah matra bhi parivartit hogi. isilie sthitiyoan mean bhed hone ke karan vishisht ushma ke anek man hote haian, kiantu suvidha ke lie keval do par hi vichar kiya jata hai. ek ka sanbandh sthir ayatan aur doosare ka sthir dab se hai aur inako kramanusar via 1 (Cv) aur vid 1 (Cp)likha jata hai thosoan aur dravoan mean tapiy prasaran apekshakrit kam hota hai, at: vishisht ushma ke anek man lagabhag barabar hote haian kiantu gaisoan mean inamean bahut aantar hota hai. bahuparamanviy anuoan mean vishisht ushma ko anubhar se guna karane par unaki anav ushma (m aaulikyular hit) aur ek paramanuk anuoan mean vishisht ushma ko paramanubhar se guna karane par unaki paramanviy ushma (ait aaumik hit) prapt hoti hai. in donoan ko aangreji mean C aur mean vi se vyakt karate haian. vaijnanik sahity mean inako keval vishisht ushma bhi likha gaya hai. is sanbandh mean adarsh gaisoan mean yah sootr lagoo hota hai:

vida - via 1 =jh

Cp -Cv = R

yahaan par jh (R) purvavarnit gais niyataank hai.

6. vishisht ushma ke siddhaant-1819 mean dayoolaang aur petit ne yah niyam pratipadit kiya ki sab thos tatvoan ki sthir ayatanavali paramanviy ushma ek hi hoti hai aur usaka man 5.94 kalari/gram paramanu ´ digri sean. hota hai. shighr hi prayogoan dvara yah siddh hua ki halke tatv-karban, boran aur silikan-is niyam ke apavad haian. poorvavarnit narnsh‌t ke prayogoan se yah jnat hua ki tap kam hone par yah niyam kisi bhi thos par lagoo nahian hota aur tap ghatane par sab tatvoan ki paramanviy ushma ghatati jati hai, yahaan tak ki param shoony ke nikat lagabhag shoony ho jati hai.

kisi samuday ki oorja ke vyanjak mean jitane varg (skveyar) pad ate haian unaki sankhya us samuday ki svatantrata sankhya (digriz aauv phridam) kahalati hai. ekaparamanuk adarsh gaisoan mean yah sankhya3 prati anu aur thos tatvoan mean yah 6 prati paramanu hoti hai. maiksavel-bolzaman ki saankhyiki ke anusar thos padarthoan ki ausat ushmik oorja

shh(jh/ai)pashh shbo pa. = = kT

prati svatantrata sankhya hoti hai. yahaan ai (N) evegaidro sankhya hai aur yah gram-paramanu mean paramanuoan ki sankhya ke barabar hoti hai. bo (K) bolzaman niyataank hai. at: ai (N) paramanuoan ki oorja

oo = 6´½ jh pa =3 jh pa [E= 6´ RT = 3RT]

aur via= taoo/tapa =3jh =3´1.98=5.94 kalari.

Cv= de/dt=3 R= 3 ´ 1.98= 5.94 Calories

is prakar dayool aaun aur petit ka siddhaant siddh ho jata hai.

nimn tap par poorvokt niyam ki viphalata ko aianstain ne 1907 mean plaank ke kvaantam siddhaant ke adhar par samajhane ka prayas kiya. is siddhaant ke anusar koee bhi s (v) avrittivala dolak oorja ka shoshan athava utsarjan keval pl s (hv) bandaloan arthath‌ kvaantamoan mean hi karata hai. pl (h) ko plaank niyataank kahate haian aur isaka man 6.6´10-27 arg sekand hota hai. is siddhaant se yah siddh hota hai ki paramanviy dolakoan ki ushmik oorja

pl s/ (ee pl s/ bo pa -1) [hv/ (e hv/kt-1)]

prati svatantrata sankhya athava

pl s/ (ee pl s/bo pa-1)[hv/ (e hv/kt-1)]

pratidolak hoti hai. aianstain ne sab paramanuoan ki avrittiyaan ek hi manakar paramanviy ushma ki ganana ki aur prayogik parinamoan ko mote roop se samajhaya.

aianstain ne svayan hi svikar kiya tha ki usaka sab paramanu ki ek hi avritti manana uchit nahian tha. dibaee ne sanpoorn thos ko avirat (kantinuas) manakar ganana ki ki yah thos kul kitane prakar se dolan kar sakata hai. avirat thos mean yah sankhya anant hoti hai aur is karan paramanviy ushma bhi anant hi honi chahie. isase bachane ke lie dibaee ne yah niradhar kalpana ki ki ek vishisht avritti se oopar kisi dolan ki sanbhavana nahian. yah avritti aisi hoti hai ki usase nichevali samast avrittiyoan ki kul sankhya3 ai (3N) hoti hai. prati avriti ki ausat oorja

pl s/ee pl s/bo pa-1 [hv/e hv/kT-1]

lene aur sab avrittiyoan ki oorja ko jo dane par tatv ki paramanviy oorja nikal ati hai. isase avakalan (difarensieshan) dvara paramanviy ushma ki ganana kar lete haian.

bahut samay tak dibaee ka siddhaant prayogik parinamoan ko samajhane mean saphal raha, kiantu kuchh samay pashchath‌ usaki yarthathata kam ho gee. b aaurn ne thos ke manibh svaroop ko dhyan mean rakha aur dolan varnakram (spektram) ko aisi avritti par samapt kiya jisake tarangadairghy ka sanbandh manibh ki banavat se hai. yah samapti manibh ki banavat par adharit hone ke karan dibaee ki avritti samapti se shreshth hai. b aaurn ke siddhaant ka blaikamain, kailaramain ityadi ne vikas kiya aur isake dvara prayogik parinamoan ki saphalatapoorvak vyakhya ki.

bharatiy vaijnanik chandrashekhar raman ne yah siddhaant pratipadit kiya ki kisi bhi ushmik dolan ko sanpoorn thos ka dolan manana trutipoorn hai. unake anusar koee bhi ushmik dolan keval kuchh paramanu samuday ka dolan hota hai aur pratyek dolan ka yah roop hota hai ki unamean nikatasth manibh koshikaoan (kistral seloan) mean oorja ki matra barabar hoti hai. vishveshvaradayal ne raman ke siddhaant dvara anek thosoan ki paramanviy ushma ki ganana ki aur unaka prayogik phaloan se mel siddh kiya. siddhaantat: bhinn hone par bhi raman aur b aaurn ke siddhaantoan dvara ganana ki huee paramanviy ushma ke man mean vishesh aantar nahian paya jata.

gaisoan ki anav ushma ki ganana karane ke lie usako tin bhagoan mean vibhakt kiya jata hai jinaka sanbandh kramanusar saral gati, ghoornan aur dolan se hota hai. yadi kisi gais anu mean s (n) paramanu hoan to usaki kul svatantrata sankhya3 s (3n) hoti hai jisamean tin saral gati se, do ya tin ghoornan se aur shesh dolan se sanbandhit haian. saral gati se utpann anav ushma prati svantatrata sankhya 1/2bo (1/2k) hoti hai. yadi anubhar aur tap bahut kam n hoan to yahi prabhav ghoornan ka bhi hota hai, parantu inake kam hone par ghoornan ke prabhav ki kvaantam saankhyiki dvara ganana ki jati hai. dolanaka prabhav thosoan ke sanbandh mean varnit aianstain ke siddhaant ke anusar kiya jata hai. is sanbandh mean prayukt dolan avrittiyoan ki ganana raman prabhav aur avarakt (inaphra-red) avrittiyoan ke adhyayan dvara ki jati hai.

7. ushma ka sthanaantaran-padarthoan mean tin vidhiyoan se ushma ka sthanaantaran hota hai jinako (1) chalan (kandakshan), (2) sanvahan (kanvekshan) aur (3) vikiran (rediyeshan) kahate haian. vikiran mean vidyuchchuanbakiy tarangoan ke roop mean ushma ek padarth se doosare ki or yatra karati hai. ye tarangean prakash ki tarangoan ke hi saman hoti haian, kiantu inaka tarangadairghy b da hota hai. inaka vivaran vikiran shirshak lekh mean anyatr diya gaya hai. sanvahan mean drav athava gais ke garam aansh gatishil hokar ushma ka anyatr vahan karate haian. is vidhi ka upayog pani athava bhap dvara makanoan ke garam rakhane mean kiya gaya hai. chalan mean padarthoan ke bhinn khan doan mean apekshik gati (riletiv moshan) nahian hoti; keval ushma ek kan se doosare mean sthanaantarit hoti rahati hai.

chalan ke sanbandh mean yah niyam hai ki ushmasancharan ki dar tapapravanatashh (teanparechar gredieant) ki samanupati hoti hai. yadi kisi pattika ki motaee sarvatrashh y (x) seantimitar ho aur usake amane samanevali satahoan ka kshetraphal ksh (A) varg seantimitar or unake tap kramanusar p1 aur p2 (t1 and t2) digri sean. hoan to unake bich ek sekand mean sancharit honevali ushma ki matra ma (Q) nimnalikhit sootr se milegi:

ma = shcha ksh .shshshshshh

shh is sootr ke niyataank cha (K) ko padarth ki ushma chalakata kahate haian. yah sootr usi samay lagoo hota hai jab ushmasancharan dhir (stedi) aur satahoan ke abhilanbavath‌ ho. aisi avastha mean satahoan ke samaantar bich ki tahoan mean ushma ke pravah ki dar ek hi hoti hai. aisa n hone par kuchh ushma tapavriddhi mean bhi vyay hoti hai jisaki dar ek any visaranata (difiziviti) namak gunaank par nirbhar rahati hai jo cha/gh vi (K/pS) ke barabar hoti hai. gh (p) ghanatv aur vi (S) vishisht ushma hai.

dhatuoan ki ushmik chalakata bahut adhik hoti hai. inake sanbandh mean bidamain-phraij ka niyam bahut mahatvapoorn hai. isake anusar ek hi tap par sab dhatuoan ki ushmik aur vidyutiy chalakata ka anupat ek hi hota hai.

8. ushmagatiki-jool ke prayogoan ne yah siddh kiya ki ushma oorja ka hi ek roop hai aur vah apani matra ke anupat mean hi kam kar sakati hai. isishh ko ushmagati ka pratham niyam kahate haian. isake anusar bina lagatar eedhann jalae kisi ushmik ianjan se nirantar kam nahian liya ja sakata. kiantu ushma ki matra to charoan or anant hai aur isalie yah sanbhavana ho sakati hai ki ham charoan or ke padarthoan ki ushma nikalakar usako kam mean parivartit karate rahean aur is prakar bina vyay ke ianjan chala sakean. anubhav yah batalaya hai ki aisa hona sanbhav nahian aur yahi doosare niyam ka vishay hai.

yah niyam un parivartanoan par lagoo hota hai jinamean ek chakr (saikil) ke uparaant samuday pun: apane mool roop mean a jata hai. isaka yah arth hai ki ham keval aise parivartanoan par vichar kareange jinamean ushma karm mean parivartit hoti hai aur isake atirikt koee any parivartan nahian hota. is niyam ke anusar yadi koee padarth aur usake pariparshv sab ek hi tap par hoan to unaki ushma ko kam mean nahian badala ja sakata. aisa karane ke lie kam se kam do bhinn tapavale padarthoan ki avashyakata hoti hai aur unase tap ke aantar ke karan hi kam karane ke lie ushma prapt ho sakati hai. is niyam ke mool mean yah tathy hai ki anuoan ki ushmik gati aniyamit hoti hai aur ianjan ke pistan ki suniyamit. jaise tash ke pattoan ko baranbar pheantakar unaka niyamit vinyas karana asanbhav sa hi hai, aise hi anuoan ki aniyamit ushmik gati ka bhi svat: pistan ki niyamit gati mean parivartit hona atidushkar hai. ianjan jo bhi ushma kam mean parivartit karate haian usaka karan yah hai ki isake sath hi sath unamean karm karanevale padarth kuchh ushma bhatthi se sanghanitr (kandensar) mean sthanaantaritashh kar dete haian. is karan isaki anavik gati ki aniyamitata badh jati hai aur kul samuday ki aniyamitata ka hhras nahian hota.

acharyoan ne ushmagatiki ke doosare niyam ke anek roop die haian jo moolat: ek hi haian, jaise:

aise ushmik ianjan ka nirman karana sanbhav nahian jo poore chakr mean kam karate hue keval ek hi piand se ushma grahan kare aur kam karanevale samuday mean bina parivartan lae us sanpoorn ushma ko kam mean badal de (plaank-kelvin).

bina bahari sahayata ke koee bhi svat: kam karanevali mashin ushma ko nimnatapiy piand se uchchatapiy mean nahian le ja sakati, arthath‌ ushma thande piand se garam mean svat: nahian ja sakati (klazius).

karno ne, jo ushma ke asali svaroop se anabhijn tha, ek adarsh ianjan ki kalpana karake usaki dakshata (efishensi) ki ganana ki. isaka ianjan poornaroopen utkramaniy (rivarsibil) hai. isaka yah abhipray hai ki kisi samuday ki karyapranali ulat dene par usake samast karyoan ki disha bhi ulat jati hai, arthath‌ yadi sidhi vidhi mean ushma shoshit hoti hai to viparit vidhi mean utani hi matra utsarjit hogi aur yadi sidhi vidhi mean utsarjit huee to viparit vidhi mean utani hi shoshit hoti hai. utkramaniy parivartan ve hi hote haian jinamean nirantar samyavastha (eekvilibriyam) rahati hai.

karno ke ianjan ka vivaran dene se poorv yah batalana avashyak hai ki jin parivartanoan mean bahari ushma ka avagaman nahian hota unako sthiroshm (aidiyabaitik) kahate haian. inake karan yadi ayatan mean vriddhi hoti hai to dab ke viparit kam karane ke karan samuday thanda ho jata hai aur isake viparit ayatan mean kami hone se samuday garam ho jata hai. yadi bahari ushma ke sanpark se samuday ka tap sthir rahe to parivartan ko samatapiy (aisotharmal) kahate haian.

karno ke ianjan mean aise siliandar ki kalpana ki gee haian jisamean koee adarsh gais bhari hoti hai aur jisaki divaroan aur pistan mean se ushma ka 150px|center

chalan nahian ho sakata. kiantu usaki peandi poornataya chalak hoti hai. isake sath ek topi bhi hoti hai jo peandi par thik baith sakati hai aur divaroan ki tarah poornataya prithakkari (inasuletar) hoti hai. ek tap pa1 (T1) ki bhatthi aur tap pa2 (T2) ke sanghanitr ki bhi vyavastha rahati hai. ye avayav chitr 1 mean pradarshit haian.

kanoan ka chakr nimnalikhit kriyaoan dvara poora kiya jata hai:

(k) siliandar ko bhatthi 5 par baitha diya jata hai aur pistan ko dhire dhire bahar khianchate jate haian jisase gais aur bhatthi ka tap nirantar barabar pa1 (T1) rahata haian. yah kriya samatapiy hai. gais ki praranbhik sthiti chitr (2) ke biandu k (A) se prakat hai aur vah samataparekha k kh (AB) se hoti huee aant mean sthiti kh (B) mean pahuanch jati hai. is kriya mean tap sthir rakhane ke lie gais bhatthi se ushma ma1 (Q1) leti hai aur chitr ke kshetraphal k kh kh¢k¢ (A B B¢ A¢) ke barabar pistan par kam karati hai. 150px|center chitr 2. karno ianjan ka soochak chitr

(kh) ab siliandar ka bhatthi se sanpark to dakar usaki peandi par topi baitha di jati hai. pistan ab bhi dhire-dhire bahar khianchata jata hai. ushmaprithakkaran (hit insuleshan) hone ke karan yah kriya sthiroshm hai aur gais kh (B) se sthiroshm rekha kh g (B C) par hoti huee sthiti g (C) par pahuanch jati hai. ab tap pa1 (T1) se girakar pa2 (T2) ho jata hai aur gais pistan par kh g g¢ kh¢ (B C C¢ B¢) kam karati hai.

(g) ab topi hatakar siliandar ko sanghanitr tap pa2 (T2) par baitha diya jata hai. pistan dhire-dhire bhitar ki or jata hai. aur gais samatapiy-rekha g gh (C D) se hokar biandu gh (D) par pahuanch jati hai. is vidhi mean gaisashh ma2 (Q2) ushma sanghanitr ko deti hai aur pistan usapar g g¢ gh¢ gh (C C¢D¢D) kam karata hai.

(gh) sanghanitr se siliandar ko hatakar usapar pun: topi baitha di jati hai. pistan dhire-dhire aandar ki or jata hai aur gais sthiroshm marg gh k (DA) seshh hokar adi sthan shk (A) pahuanchati hai. pistan gais par kary gh gh¢ k¢ k (D D¢A¢A) karata hai aur gais ka tap badhakar pun: pa1 (T1) ho jata hai. is prakar karno ka chakr poorn hota hai. isake parinam ye hote haian:

(1) gais dvara kie hue kam mean se usapar hue kam ko ghatakar kul chakr mean k kh g gh (A B C D) ke barabar kam hota hai.

(2) bhatthi gais ko ushma ma1(Q1) deti hai jisamean se vah sanghanitr ko ushma ma2 (Q2) dekar shesh ko shk kh g gh (A B C D) kary karane mean vyay karati hai.

is chakr ki samast kriyaean samyavastha mean hone ke karan utkramaniy (rivarsibil) haian. isaki

shh shshshshshshshshshh

shshshshshh shshshshshshshshshshshshshh shdakshata = prapt kam shshshshh shshshshh

bhatthi se prapt ushmashh shshshshshh

karno ne siddh kiya ki kisi bhi ianjan ki dakshata utkramaniy ianjan se adhik nahian ho sakati aur siliandar ke bhitar koee bhi padarth kyoan n kam kare, samast utkramaniy ianjanoan ki dakshata ek hi hoti hai. isi ko karno pramey kahate haian. karno ke praman ka adhar yah hai ki yadi koee any ianjan utkramaniy ianjan se adhik daksh ho to in donoan ko uchit roop se jo dakar kam tapavale sanghanitr se bina any parivartan kie ushma nikalakar kam karana sanbhav ho sakata hai. yah ushmagatiki ke dvitiy niyam ke anusar sanbhav nahian.

9. param tapakram-(aibsolyoot skel aauv teanparechar)-karno ianjan ki dakshata usake siliandar mean bhare hue padarth aur usaki avastha par ashrit nahian hoti aur keval bhatthi tatha sanghanitr ke tapoan par nirbhar rahati hai. is karan lard kelvin ne sujhav diya ki isi ko tapamapan ka adhar banana uchit hoga. is navin mapakram mean bhatthi se karno ianjan dvara shoshit ushma ma1 (Q1)aur sanghanitr ko di huee ushma ma2 (Q2) in donoan ka anupat unake tap th1 (q1) aur th2 (q2) ke anutap ke barabar hota hai. arthath‌

ma1/ma2 th/1 th3

Q1 Q2 q1/q2

yadi bhatthi shuddh pani ke kvathanaank par aur sanghanitr himaank par ho to un donoan ke tapoan ka aantar 1000 param mana jata hai, arthath‌

ma1(kvathanaank)shshshshshshshshh th0Q+100shshshshshshh Q1 (kvathanaank)shshshshshshshshshh q0+ 100

---

shshshshshshh =shshshshshshh ----------------.shshshshshshshshshshshshshh --------------------shshshshshh =shshshshshshshshshshshshshh ----------

ma2 (himaank)shshshshshshshshshshshshshh thashshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshh Q2 (himaank)shshshshshshshshshshshshshh q0

yahaan par th0 (q0) param mapakram mean himaank ka man hai. yadi ma2 (Q2)shoony ho to th0 (q0) bhi shoony hota hai. isi ko param shoony (aibsolyoot ziro) kahate haian. tap par sanghanitr ko rakhane se bhatthi ki sanpoorn ushma kam karane mean vyay hogi at: yah spasht hai ki isase nimn tap sanbhav nahian ho sakata. aantarrashtriy nishchay ke anusar ab keval himaank ko 273.160° manakar hi param digri ka man nirdharit kiya jata hai.

karno ka ianjan adarsh matr hai, vyavaharik nahian. at: yah mapakram bhi vyavaharik nahian ho sakata. parantu siddhaantanusar adarsh gaisoan ke mapakram ka tap poorvokt ushmagatiki athava param paimane ke tap ke barabar hota hai, at: adarsh gais mapakram ko kam mean laya jata hai. kiantu isaki pramanikata ushmagatiki mapakram par hi adharit hai.

adhik janakari ke lie ushmagatiki shirshak lekh dekhean.

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panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

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sanbandhit lekh

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