दुर्ग
| chitr:Disamb2.jpg durg | ek bahuvikalpi shabd hai any arthoan ke lie dekhean:- durg (bahuvikalpi) |
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[[chitr:Jaisalmer-Fort.jpg|thumb|250px|jaisalamer qila, jaisalamer]] durg shabd ka tatpary hai aisa gadh jahaan pahuanchana kathin ho. yuddh ke tarikoan mean parivartan ke sath durg ka arth bhi badalata raha hai, kyoanki yuddh se durg ka sidha sanbandh hai. kisi bhoobhag ya kshetr ki naisargik rakshatmak shakti ki vriddhi karana bhi ab durg nirman ke aantargat mana jata hai.
durg (qila ya rajadhani)
manu[1]ne rajadhani ko rashtr ke poorv rakha hai. meghatithi[2] evan kulluk ka kathan hai ki rajadhani par shatru ke adhikar se bhay utpann ho jata hai, kyoanki vahian sara bhojy padarth ekatr rahata hai, vahian pramukh tattv evan sainyabal ka ayojan rahata hai. at: yadi rajadhani ki raksha ki ja saki to parahast-gat rajy lauta liya ja sakata hai aur desh ki raksha ki ja sakati hai. bhale hi rajy ka kuchh bhag shatru jit le, kintu rajadhani avijit rahani chahie. rajadhani hi shasan-yantr ki dhuri hai. kuchh lekhakoan ne [3]pur (rajadhani) ya durg ko rashtr ke uparant sthan diya hai. prachin yuddh parampara tatha uttar bharat ki bhaugolik sthiti ke karan hi rajy ke tattvoan mean rajadhani evan durgoan ko itani mahatta di gee hai. rajadhani desh ki sampatti ka darpan thi aur yadi vah ooanchi-ooanchi divaroan se sudridh rahati thi to suraksha ka kary bhi karati thi.
yajnavalky[4] ne likha hai ki durg ki sthiti se raja ki suraksha, praja evan kosh ki raksha hoti hai[5]. manu [6] ne durg ke nirman ka karan bhali-bhaanti bata diya hai, durg mean avasthit ek dhanurdhar sau dhanurdharoan ko tatha sau dhanurdhar ek sahasr dhanurdharoan ko mar gira sakate haian.[7]. rajaniti prakash dvara uddhrit brihaspati mean aya hai ki apani-apani raniyoan, praja evan ekatr ki huee sampatti ki raksha ke lie raja ko prakaroan (divaroan) evan dvar se yukt durg ka nirman karana chahie.[8]
char prakar ke durgoan ka ullekh
[[chitr:Amber-Fort-Rajasthan-1.jpg|thumb|250px|amer ka qila, jayapur]] kautily[9] ne durgoan ke nirman evan unamean se kisi ek mean rajadhani banane ke vishay mean savistar likha hai. unhoanne char prakar ke durgoan ka ullekh kiya hai, yatha-
- audak (jal se surakshit, jo dvip-sa ho, jisake charoan or jal ho)
- parvat (paha di par ya gufa vala)
- dhanvan (marubhoomi vala, jalavihin bhoomikhand, jahaan jha d-jhankar hoan ya anurvar bhoomi ho)
- van-durg (jahaan khanjan, jal-murgiyaan hoan, jal ho, jha d-jhankar aur beant evan baansoan ke jhund hoan).
kautily ka kahana hai ki pratham do prakar ke durg jal-sankul sthanoan ko suraksha ke lie haian aur antim do prakar jangaloan ki raksha ke lie haian. vayupuran [10] ne durg ke char prakar die haian.
manu ke anusar chh: prakar ke durg
manu [11], shantiparv[12], vishnudharmasootr [13], matsyapuran [14], agnipuran [15], vishnudharmottar [16], shukranitisar [17]ne chh: prakar bataye haian, yatha-
- dhanv durg (jal vihin, khuli bhoomi par paanch yojan ke ghere mean)
- mahidurg (sthal durg, prastar khandoan ya eeantoan se nirmit prakaroan vala, jo 12 phut se adhik chau da aur chau daee se duguna lamba ho)
- jaladurg (charoan or jal se avrit)
- varksh-durg (jo charoan or se ek yojan tak kantile evan lambe-lambe vrikshoan, kantile lata-gulmoan evan jha diyoan se avritt ho)
- nridurg (jo chaturangini sena se charoan or se surakshit ho)
- giridurg (paha doan vala durg, jis par kathinaee se chadha ja sake aur jisamean keval ek hi sankirn marg ho).
manu [18] ne giridurg ko sarvashreshth kaha hai, kintu shantiparv [19] ne nridurg ko sarvottam kaha hai, kyoanki use jitana b da hi kathin hai. manasollas [20] ne prastaroan, eeantoan evan mitti se bane any tin prakar jo dakar nau durgoan ka ullekh kiya hai. manu [21], sabhaparv [22], ayodhya [23], matsyapuran [24], kamandakiy nitisar [25], manasollas [26], shukranitisar [27], vishnudharmottar [28] ke anusar durg mean paryapat ayudh, ann, aushadh, dhan, gho de, hathi, bharavahi pashu, brahman, shilpakar, mashinean (jo saik doan ko ek bar marati haian), jal evan bhoosa adi saman hone chahie. nitivakyamrit[29] ka kahana hai ki durg mean gupt surang honi chahie, jisase gupt roop se nikala ja sake, nahian to vah bandi grih sa ho jayega, ve hi log ane-jane payean, jinake pas sanket chihn hoan aur jinaki huliya bhali-bhaanti le li gayi ho. vishesh janakari ke lie dekhie kautily [30], rajadharmakaand [31], rajadharmakaustubh [32], jahaan ushana, mahabharat, matsyapuran, vishnudharmottar adi se katipay uddharan diye ge haian.[33]
vaidik kalin durg
[[chitr:Golkunda-Fort-Hyderabad-2.jpg|thumb|250px|golakuanda qila, haidarabad]] rrigved mean bahudha nagaroan ka ullekh hua hai. indr ne purukuts ke lie sat nagar dhvast kar dale [34]. indr ne dasyuoan ko mara aur unake ayash (tamr; 'hatvi dasyoonh pur ayasirh ni tarith') ke nagaroan ko nasht kar diya[35]. spasht hai, rrigved ke kal mean bhi prakarayukt durg hote the. kintu divarean mitti ya lak di ki thian ya patthar, eeantoan ki thian; kuchh spasht roop se kaha nahian ja sakata.[36] taittiriyasanhita [37] ne asuroan ke tin nagaroan ka ullekh kiya hai, jo ayash, chaandi evan sone (harini) ke the. shatapath brahman mean varnit agnichayan mean sahasroan pakki eeantoan ki avashyakata p dati thi. sindhu ghati ki nagariyoan (mohanajod doan evan h dappa) mean pakki eeantoan ka prayog hota tha[38]. rrigved kal mean bhi aisa paya jana asambhav nahian hoga. ramayan evan mahabharat mean prakaroan (divaroan), toranoan, attalakoan (oopari manjiloan), upakulyaoan adi ka ullekh rajadhaniyoan ke silasile mean paya jata hai. kabhi-kabhi nagaroan ke nam par hi dvaroan ke nam p d jate the. pandav log hastinapur ke bahar vardhamanapur dvar se gaye[39]. mahaloan mean nartanagar bhi hote the.[40] ramayan [41]mean lanka ke sat-sat evan ath-ath manzil vale prasadoan evan pachchikaroan se yukt pharshoan ka ullekh milata hai. brihatasanhita [42] mean vastushastr par 115 shlok aye haian, jinamean bhavanoan, prasadoan adi ke nirman ke vishay mean lamba-chau da akhyayan paya jata hai. inamean divaroan ke lie eeantoan ya lak di ke prayog ki bat chalayi gee hai.[33]
puranoan mean
[[chitr:Kumbhalgarh-Fort.jpg|thumb|kuanbhalagadh durg, udayapur|250px]] raja ki rajadhani durg ke bhitar ya sarvadha svatantr roop se nirmit ho sakati thi. manu[43], ashramavasik[44], shantiparv [45], kamandakiy nitisar [46], matsyapuran[47] evan shukranitisar [48] ne rajadhani ke nirman ke vishay mean ullekh kiya hai. kautily [49] ne vistar ke sath rajadhani ke nirman ki vyavastha di hai. kautily ke mat se rajadhani ke vistar-dyotak roop mean poorv se pashchim tin rajamarg tatha uttar se dakshin tin rajamarg hone chahie. rajadhani mean is prakar barah dvar hone chahie. usamean gupt bhoomi evan jal hona chahie. rathamarg evan ve marg jo dronamukh, sthaniy, rashtr evan charagahoan ki or jate haian, chau daee mean char dand (16 hath) hone chahie. kautily ne isake uparant any kamoan ke lie bane margoan ki chau daee ka ullekh kiya hai. raja ka prasad poorvabhimukh ya uttarabhimukh hona chahie aur lambaee aur chau daee mean sampoorn rajadhani ka 9/10 bhag hona chahie. rajaprasad rajadhani ke uttar mean hona chahie. rajaprasad ke uttar mean raja ke achary, purohit, mantriyoan ke grih tatha yajn-bhoomi evan jalashay hone chahie. kautily ne isi prakar rajaprasad ke chaturdik, adhyakshoan, vyapariyoan, pramukh shilpakaroan, brahmanoan, kshatriyoan, vaishyoan, badhiyoan, shoodroan adi ke avasoan ka ullekh kiya hai. rajadhani ke madhy mean aparajit, apratihat, jayant evan vaijayant ke moortigrih tatha shiv, kuber, ashvini, lakshmi, madira (durga) ke mandir bane rahane chahie. pramukh dvaroan ke nam brahm, yam, indr evan kartikey ke namoan par rakhe jane chahie. khaee ke age 100 dhanushoan (100 hath) ki doori par pavitr pe doan ke mandap, kunj evan baandh hone chahie. uchch varnoan ke shmashan sthal dakshin mean tatha any logoan ke poorv ya uttar mean hone chahie. shmashan ke age nastikoan evan chaandaloan ke avas hone chahie. das gharoan par ek koop hona chahie. tel, ann, chini, davaean, sookhi tarakariyaan, eedhan, hathiyar tatha any avashyak samagriyaan itani matra evan sankhya mean ekatr honi chahie ki akraman ya ghir jane par varshoan tak kisi vastu ka abhav n ho. upayukt vivaran se matsyapuran ki bahut si batoan ka mel nahian baithata[50]. rajanitiprakash [51] evan rajadharmakaand[52] ne matsyapuran ko adhikaansh mean uddhrit kiya hai. rajanitiprakash [53] ne devipuran se nagar, hatt, puri, pattan, mandiroan ke nirman ke vishay mean bahut-se aansh uddhrit kar rakhe haian.[54][33]
gram evan nagar ka antar
panini (7|3|14) ne gram evan nagar ka antar bataya hai[55]. patanjali ne isaki vyakhya karate hue likha hai ki gram, ghosh, nagar evan sanvah bhaanti-bhaanti ke janadhivasitoan (bastiyoan) ke ya bastiyoan ke daloan ke nam haian. vayupuran[56] ne prithakh roop se puroan (nagaroan ya puriyoan), ghoshoan (gvaloan ke gramoan), gramoan evan pattanoan ka ullekh kiya hai. rajadhani, prasad, kachahariyoan, karyalayoan, khaiyoan adi ke nirman ke vishay mean dekhie shukranitisar [57], yuktikalpataru [58], vayupuran [59], matsyapuran [60]. shukranitisar [61] ne padya (phutapath), vithi (gali) evan marg ki chau daee kam se kam 3, 5 evan 10 hath kahi hai. ayodhya ki rajadhani ke varnan ke lie dekhie ramayan (2|100|40-42). ramayan [62] evan mahabharat [63] se pata chalata hai ki s dakoan par chhi dakav hota tha. harshacharit [64] mean ban ne sthanvishvar (thaneshvar) ka sundar varnan kiya hai. rajadhani ke sthaniy shasan ke vishay mean dekhie kautily [65]. [[chitr:Red-Fort-Agra.jpg|left|thumb|lal qila, agara]] paha dapur patr (gupt sanvath 159=478-9 ee.) se pata chalata hai ki nagar shreshthi (rajadhani ke vyapariyoan evan dhanagar shreshthiyoan ke pramukh) ka chunav sambhavat: svayan raja karata tha[66]. sambhavat: rajadhani ke shasak ko shasan kary mean sahayata dene ke lie pauramukhyoan ya pauravriddho ki ek samiti hoti thi. damodarapur ke patr [67] mean nagar seth (nagar shreshthi) ka ullekh hai. megasthanij[68] ne palivothra (pataliputr) nagar tatha usake shasan ka varnan kiya hai. vah kahata hai ki 5-5 sadasyoan sadasyoan ki 6 samitiyaan thi, jo kram se (1) shilpoan, (2) videshiyoan, (3) janm-maran, (4) vyapar, batakharoan (5) nirmit samanoan evan (6) bechi huee vastuoan ka dasavaan bhag ekatr karane arthath chuangi karati thi. megasthaniz ke kathan se pata chalata hai ki pataliputr 80 stediya lamba evan 15 stediya chau da tha, isaka akar samanantar chaturbhuj ki bhaanti tha aur isake charoan aur lak di ki divarean thian, jinamean tir chho dane ke lie chhidr bane hue the. rajadhani ke samane khaee bhi thi. eriyan [69] ke anusar pataliputr mean 570 stambh evan 64 dvar the. apane mahabhashy mean patanjali ne pataliputr ka ullekh kee bar kiya hai.[70] mahabhashy mean pataliputr shon ke kinare bataya gaya hai[71]aur isamean isake prasadoan ka bhi ullekh hua hai[72]. phahiyan (san 399-414 ee.) ne bhi pataliputr ki shobha ka ullekh kiya hai aur use pretatmaoan ke dvara banaya hua kaha hai.[73]
bhagavat puran[74] mean aya hai ki ven ke putr prithu ne sarvapratham prithvi ko samatal karaya aur gramoan, nagaroan, rajadhaniyoan, durgoan adi mean janoan ko basaya. prithu ke poorv lok jahaan chahate the rahate the, n to gram the aur n hi nagar. rajanitikaustubh ke anusar shridhar dvara uddhrit bhrigu ke mat se gram vah basti hai, jahaan brahman log apane karmiyoan (matadooroan) evan shoodroan ke sath rahate haian. kharbat nadi ke tat ki us basti ko kahate haian, jahaan mishrit log rahate haian aur jisake ek or gram aur doosari or nagar ho. rajanitikaustubh[75] dvara uddhrit shaunak ke mat se khet use kahate haian, jahaan brahman, kshatriy, evan vaishy rahate haian, vah sthan jahaan sabhi jatiyaan rahati haian, nagar kahalata hai. shaunak ke mat se brahman grihasthoan ko shvet evan sugandhit mitti mean, kshatriyoan ko lal evan sugandhit mitti vale nagaroan mean tatha vaishyoan ko pili mitti vale sthanoan se basana chahie.[33]
bharat mean durg
[[chitr:Red-Fort.jpg|250px|thumb|lal qila, dilli]] bharat mean durg ki anek kismean jnat thian. chanaky ne jaladurg, marudurg, vanadurg adi anek prakar ke durgoan ka varnan kiya hai. bharat ke mugal shasak durg rachana mean b di dilachaspi rakhate the, jisaka praman dilli aur agare ke lal qile tatha ilahabad sthit akabar ka qila hai. pashchaty deshoan mean durg-nirman-kala ka vikas top aur topakhane ki phayar shakti ke vikas ke sath sath hua. bharat mean topakhane ka sarvapratham upayog bahut samay bad, 1526 ee. mean babar ne panipat ke yuddh mean kiya tha. at: yahaan durg kala ka vaisa vikas hona sanbhav nahian tha.
durgabandi
durgabandi (dekhean qilabandi) do prakar ki hoti hai, sthayi aur asthayi. shaanti ke samay kankrit aur prastar nirmit qile, khaiyaan, badhaean aur sainik avas sthayi durgabandi haian aur shatru se muthabhe d hone par, ya yuddh avashyanbhavi hone ki sthiti mean ki janevali durgabandi, asthayi ya maidani kahalati hai. maidani durgabandi lachili hoti hai, at: raksha ke sath hi akraman hone ke pahale apane sthiti ko dridh kar lene ka avasar pradan karati hai. khaeebandi, astr abhisthapan, astroan ke lie spasht phayar kshetr, surang, kantile tar adi badhaean tatha gir pe d, chattan jaise padarthoan se upalabdh prakritik badhaoan ko aur bhi dridh karana ityadi maidani durgabandi ke aantargat hai. adhunik maidani durgabandi mean gopan aur chhadmavaran avashyak haian. akabar ka qila, ajamer|thumb|left ek samay tha jab yuddh mean akraman ki apeksha saphal pratiraksha hi yuddh ki nirnayika hoti thi. un dinoan sthayi durgabandi par bahut dhyan diya gaya. top ke avishkar ke poorv madhyayugin qile lagabhag abhedy the. shaktishali se shaktishali akramanakari bhi durg ka ghera dale mahinoan p de rahate the. un dinoan pratiraksha ka arth parajay ko yathasanbhav adhik se adhik samay tak talana matr tha. durg rachana ki kala mean jarman, phraansisi, british aur itali yogadan paryapt haian. 11vian shatabdi mean n aaurman durg bane jo, bhittipatakoan tak ka prahar jhel jate the. dharmayuddhoan ke kal mean bhi durgakala ka vikas hua. kramik pratiraksha pankti ke siddhaant par ekakeandriy durg bane jinhean 13vian aur 14vian shatabdi ke ghera ianjan bhi nahian to d pate the. barood ke avishkar ne yuddh vijnan mean kraanti kar di aur phalat: durgabandi mean bhi b de parivartan hue. dvitiy vishvayuddh ke samay mean prabalatam durgoan ka dhvans karane vale astr ban sake the.
maidani durgabandi
shatru ke marg mean badha upasthit karana, bahut prachin vidya hai. badha aisi honi chahie ki shatru apane astroan ka prayog karane mean asuvidha ka anubhav kare, lekin pratirakshak ko koee asuvidha n ho. shatru ke akraman tatha sthaniy akraman ko vibhakt karane mean maidani durgabandi sahayak hoti hai. phayar shakti, taiank aur chhatadhari sena ke karan ab sthayi durgoan ka koee upayog nahian rah gaya haian, kiantu maidani durgabandi se badha utpann karake shatru ke ane mean der ki ja sakati hai.
khaee yuddh
khaee yuddh koee nee vidya nahian hai. prachin rom mean har sainik ko khaee khodani p dati thi. jooliyas sizar ne kantile taroan, surangoan aur visphotakoan ko chho dakar, adhunik kal mean jnat sabhi vidyaoan ka prayog kiya tha. mangoloan ne 13vian shatabdi mean khaee bandi ka prayog kiya tha. aantar yah hai ki adhunik kal ki khaiyaan topakhane ke karan adhik gahari aur mazaboot hoti haian. astroan ke vikas ne maidani durgabandi ko bahut prabhavit kiya hai. [[chitr:Bikaner-Fort.jpg|thumb|bikaner ka qila, bikaner|250px]] pashchimi deshoan ki apeksha amarika valoan ne maidani durgabandi ko tezise grahan kiya, kyoanki amarika mean sthayi durg nahian the. kraantiyuddh mean amarikiyoan ko sada hi maidani durgabandiyoan par nirbhar rahana p da.
pratham vishvayuddh ke dauran
pratham vishvayuddh pashchim mean pratham vishvayuddh gherabandi ka yuddh tha. lakhoan sainik mahinoan tak khaiyoan mean p de rahate the. khaiyoan mean pratiraksha ki karyavaiyaan hoti thian aur topakhanoan ka vinyas is prakar kiya jata tha ki shatru ka pravesh tisari pankti mean n ho sake. donoan paksh manobal to dane ke prayasoan par adhikadhik bal dete the.
surang ka avishkar
pratham vishvayuddh ki samapti aur dvitiy yuddh ke praranbh ke madhyakal mean surang ka avishkar mahattvapoorn raha. khaee tantr, kantile tar ki badha, mashinagan tatha topakhana abhisthapan aur taiankoan se bachav ke lie surang bichhane ka adhyayan kiya gaya. durgabandi ki disha mean phraans mean majino rekha, jarmani mean sigaphrad rekha aur roos mean stalin rekha par dhyan keandrit hua. taiankoan ke marg mean badha utpann karane ke lie ispat aur kankrit ki badhaoan ke atirikt jangaloan au badh kshetroan ka bhi upayog kiya gaya. havaee suraksha ke lie atirikt top abhisthapan, khoj batti aur vyapak teliphon sanchar ki vyavastha huee tatha havaee prekshan se bachane aur shatru ki sthal sena ko dhokha dene ke lie chhipane ki vidhiyoan ka nirman hua. maidani durgabandiyoan tak pahuanchane ke lie rel aur s dakoan ki vriddhi ki gee tatha vayuyanoan ke utarane ke lie avataranakshetr aur bhoomigat vayuyan shalaoan ka nirman hua. vishaili gaisoan se raksha tatha paidal sena ke najadiki akraman ka samana karane ke lie sthitiyoan ka sangathan kiya gaya. in dinoan tatiy durgabandi par b da dhyan rakha gaya. lekin yuddh se siddh ho gaya ki top aur taiank ke sammukh inaka astitv mahatvahin hai.
doosara vishvayuddh ke dauran
[[chitr:Sinhagarh-Fort-Pune.jpg|thumb|250px|sianhagadh qila, pune]] doosara vishvayuddh mean taiankoan se bachane ka prashn tha. taikoan ke marg mean surang bichhakar unake pahuanchane mean deri ki ja sakati thi. prashaant dvipoan mean ret ke boroan ka prayog hua. japaniyoan ki maidani durgabandi, suvyavasthit hoti thi. khode hue sthan ko jangali pattoan, tahaniyoan se ve is prakar chhipa dete the ki sainik sthitiyoan ko pahachanana kathin ho jata tha. nagaroan mean gharoan mean rahakar yuddh karana, maidani durgabandi mean sammilit kiya gaya. yuddh ke lie patthar ke bane mazaboot ghar chun lie ge aur khaiyaan khodane ke lie buladozaroan ka upayog kiya gaya. in sadhanoan ka thik prakar se samanvayan avashyak tha, jisake abhav mean inase apana hi ghatak ahit hota tha.
jarmani ne smal qila jitakar kiya chakit
jarmani ne ek din ke aandar beljiyam ka elben-smal qila jitakar sare vishv ko chakit kar diya. is qile ko jarmani ne kisi gupt astr ke upayog se nahian jita, balik isalie jita ki usane m aaudaloan dvara akraman ka anek bar poorvabhyas kar liya tha. jarmani ne majino rekha ko uttar ki or se par karake prabhavahin kar diya. isi upay se unhoanne stalin rekha ko prabhavahin kiya. roosiyoan ki 100 mil gahari durgabandi bhi jarmanoan ki chaloan ke age prabhavahin siddh huee. lekin roosiyoan ko jarmani ke akraman ki disha ka pata lag gaya, jisake karan ve unake akraman ki tivrata ko rokane mean saphal hue. kuchh samay bad japaniyoan ne siangapur ki tatiy durgabandi ko nirarthak kar diya. japani is durg ke uttar mean utar p de the aur is shaktishali durg ki topean keval samudr ki disha mean phayar kar sakati thian.
doosare vishvayuddh se yah lagabhag siddh ho gaya ki sthayi durgabandi ke nirman mean dhan aur shram vyay karana vyarth hai, kyoanki shatru ke ane mean der utpann karane ke aur bhi upay haian. isaka arth yah nahian ki sthayi durg sarvada ke lie samapt ho ge, kyoanki bhavishy mean paramanaviy yuddh ke samay senaoan ko kankrit ki bani khaiyoan ka ashray lena p d sakata hai.
tika tippani aur sandarbh
- ↑ manu (9|294)
- ↑ meghatithi (manu 9|295)
- ↑ (yahaan tak ki manu ne bhi, 7|69-70)
- ↑ yajnavalky (1|321)
- ↑ (janakoshatmakaguptaye)
- ↑ manu (7|74)
- ↑ dekhie panchatantr (1|229 evan 2|14)
- ↑ brihaspati. atmadararthalokanaan sanchitanaan tu guptaye. nripati: karayed durg prakaradvarasanyutamh. rajanitiprakash, prishth 202 evan rajadharm kand, prishth 28.
- ↑ kautily (2|3 evan 4)
- ↑ vayu puran (8|108)
- ↑ manu (7|70)
- ↑ shantiparv (56|35 evan 86|4-5)
- ↑ vishnudharmasootr (3|6)
- ↑ matsyapuran (217|6-7)
- ↑ agnipuran (222|4-5)
- ↑ vishnudharmottar (2|26|6-9, 3|323|16-21)
- ↑ shukranitisar (4|6)
- ↑ manu (7|79)
- ↑ shantiparv (56|35)
- ↑ manasollas (2|5, prishth 78)
- ↑ manu (7|75)
- ↑ sabhaparv (5|36)
- ↑ ayodhya (100|53)
- ↑ matsyapuran (217|8)
- ↑ kamandakiy nitisar(4|60)
- ↑ manasollas (3|5, shlok 550-555)
- ↑ shukranitisar (4|612-13)
- ↑ vishnudharmottar (2|26|20-88)
- ↑ (durgasamuddesh, prishth 199)
- ↑ kautily (2|3)
- ↑ rajadharmakaand (prishth 28-36)
- ↑ rajadharmakaustubh (prishth 115-117)
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 pustak- dharmashastr ka itihas | prishth sankhya- 663 - 666 | lekhak- paandurang vaman kane
- ↑ (rrigved 1|63|7)
- ↑ (rrigved 2|20|8)
- ↑ dekhie h aaupkians, je.e.o.es., jild 13, prishth 174-176.
- ↑ taittiriyasanhita (6|2|3|1)
- ↑ (marshal, jild 1, prishth 15-26)
- ↑ (vanaparv, 1|9-10)
- ↑ (virataparv 22|16 evan 25-26). aur dekhie shantiparv (69|60, 86|4-15).
- ↑ ramayan (5|2|50-53)
- ↑ brihatasanhita (adhyay 53)
- ↑ manu (7|70 evan 76)
- ↑ ashramavasik (5|16-17)
- ↑ shantiparv (86|6-10)
- ↑ kamandakiy nitisar (4|57)
- ↑ matsyapuran (217|9)
- ↑ shukranitisar (1|213-217)
- ↑ kautily (2|4)
- ↑ (matsyapuran 217|9-87)
- ↑ rajanitiprakash (prishth 208-213)
- ↑ rajadharmakaand (prishth 28-36)
- ↑ rajanitiprakash (prishth 214-219)
- ↑ emilaiye 'grama hattadishoonya:, purohattadimaty:, t ev mahaty: pattanani, durganyaudakadini. kheta: karshakagrama:. kharvata: parvataprantagrama iti.' shridhar (bhagavatapuran 4|18|31), rajanitikaustubh dvara uddhrit (prishth 102). shilparatn (adhyay 5) mean gram, khetak, kharvat, durg, rajadhani, pattan, dronik, shibir, skandhavar, sthaniy, vidambak, nigam evan shakhanagar ki paribhashaean di gayi haian. may mat (10|92) ne inamean das ka ullekh kiya hai aur (9|10) gram, khet, kharvat, durg tatha nagar ke vistar ka varnan kiya hai.
- ↑ (prachaangramanagaranamh)
- ↑ vayupuran (94|40)
- ↑ shukranitisar (1|213-258)
- ↑ yuktikalpataru (prishth 22)
- ↑ vayupuran (8|108)
- ↑ matsyapuran (130)
- ↑ shukranitisar (1|260-267)
- ↑ ramayan (6|112|42, siktarathyantarayana)
- ↑ mahabharat (adiparv 221|36)
- ↑ harshacharit (3)
- ↑ kautily (2|36)
- ↑ (epi. i., jild 20, prishth 59)
- ↑ (epi. ee., jild, 15, prishth 130, 133, gupt sanvat 129)
- ↑ (maikariandil ki eanshyent iandiya, fraigameant 34, prishth 187)
- ↑ (maikariandil, prishth 209-210)
- ↑ (jild 1, prishth 380).
- ↑ (panini 2|1|16)
- ↑ (vartik 4, panini 4|3|36 evan jild 2, prishth 321, panini 4|3|134)
- ↑ aur dekhie rais devids (buddhist iandiya, prishth 34-41).
- ↑ bhagavat puran (4|18|30-32)
- ↑ rajanitikaustubh (prishth 130-4)
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