मौर्यकालीन भारत

maury samrajy ki samajik arthik, shasan prabanndh tatha dharm aur kala sambandhi janakari ke lie kautily ka 'arthashastr', maigasthaniz krit 'iandika' tatha ashok ke abhilekhoan ka thik se arth lagaya jae to pata chalega ki ve ek-doosare ke poorak haian. rudradaman ke joonagadh shilalekh se bhi prantiy shasan ke sambandh mean mahattvapoorn janakari prapt hoti hai. maury kal ki janakari ke lie 'arthashastr' ki pramanikata ke sambandh mean vidvanoan mean matabhed haian. paramparagat dharana ke adhar par ise chandragupt maury ke mantri chanaky (vishnugupt) dvara rachit manakar ee. poo. chauthi shatabdi ka bataya jata hai. kintu vaijnanik dhang se kie ge adhunik shodh ne is mat ke prati ashanka vyakt ki hai. is sandarbh mean traantamain ke shodhakary ka ullekh anuchit n hoga. 'arthashastr' ki shaili ke saankhyakiy vishleshan dvara unhoanne spasht kiya hai ki isaki rachana ek yug vishesh mean nahian apitu vibhinn shatabdiyoan mean huee aur isilie yah kisi vyakti vishesh ki rachana n hokar vibhinn hathoan ki kriti hai. jahaan kuchh adhyay maury kal ke haian, vahaan adhikaansh adhyay aise bhi haian, jo tisari, chauthi shatabdi eesvi mean rache ge.

mauryakalin samaj

poorvavarti dharmashastroan ki bhaanti kautily ne bhi varnashram vyavastha ko samajik sangathan ka adhar mana hai. usake anusar varnashram vyavastha ki raksha karana raja ka kartavy hai. dharmashastroan ke anusar kautily ne bhi charoan varnoan ke vyavasay nirdharit kie. kintu shoodr ko shilpakala aur sevavritti ke atirikt krishi, pashupalan aur vanijy se ajivika chalane ki anumati di hai. inhean sammilit roop mean "varta" kaha gaya hai. nishchit hai ki is vyavastha se shoodr ke arthik sudhar ka prabhav usaki samajik sthiti par bhi p da hoga. kautily dvara nirdharit shoodroan ke vyavasay vastavikata ke adhik nikat hai. vaishyoan ke sahayak ke roop mean athava svatantr roop se shoodr bhi krishi, pashupalan tatha vyapar kiya karate the. arthashastr mean ek aur parivartan drishtigochar hota hai aur vah yah ki shoodr ko ary kaha gaya hai tatha use mlechchh se bhinn mana gaya hai. kaha gaya hai ki ary shoodr ko das nahian banaya ja sakata, yadyapi mlechchhoan mean santan ko das roop mean bechana ya kharidana dosh nahian hai.

samaj mean brahmanoan ka vishisht sthan tha, kintu manu tatha poorvagami dharmasootroan ki bhaanti is tathy ko bar bar duharane ka prayas arthashastr mean nahian kiya gaya hai. yah bat asvikar nahian ki ja sakati ki brahman, samaj ka bauddhik aur dharmik netritv karate the, ve hi shikshak tatha purohit hote the. brahmanoan dvara yajn karavae jane ka ullekh megasthaniz ne bhi kiya hai. raja ke purohit aur qanoon mantri adhikaansh isi varg se niyukt kie jate the. unhean arthik aur qanoon sambandhi vishesh adhikar prapt the. raja ke shikshakoan, yajn karane vale purohit (achary) tatha vedapathi brahmanoan ko bhoomi dan mean di jati thi. yah bhoomi 'brahmadey' kahalati thi aur yah poornatah kar mukt thi. brahmanoan ki samaj mean pradhanata bahut pahale se chali a rahi thi aur is vyavastha mean bhi isaka prachalan virodh nahian kiya gaya.

brahmanadi char varnoan ke atirikt kautily ne anek varnasankar jatiyoan ka bhi ullekh kiya hai. inaki utpatti dharmashastroan ki bhaanti vibhinn varnoan ke anulom aur pratilom vivahoan mean bataee gee hai. jin varnasankar jatiyoan ka ullekh hai ve haian - ambashth nishad, parashav, rathakar, kshatta, vedehak, magadh, soot, pullakas, ven, chandal, shvapak ityadi. inamean se kuchh adivasi jatiyaan thian. jo nishchit vyavasay se ajivika chalati thian. kautily ne chaandaloan ke atirikt any sabhi varnasankar jatiyoan ko shoodr mana hai. inake atirikt tantuvay (julahe), rajak (dhobi), darji, sunar, luhar, badhee adi vyavasay par adharit varg, jati ka roop dharan kar chuke the. arthashastr mean in sabaka samavesh shoodr varn ke aantargat kiya gaya hai. ashok ke shilalekhoan mean das aur karmakar ka ullekh hai. jo shoodr varg ke aandar hi samavisht kie jate haian.

jatipratha ki kuchh visheshataoan ki pushti megasthaniz ki iandika se hoti hai. megasthaniz ne likha hai ki koee bhi vyakti apani jati ke bahar vivah nahian kar sakata, n vah apane vyavasay ko doosari jati ke vyavasay mean badal hi sakata hai. keval brahmanoan ko hi apani vishesh sthiti ke karan yah adhikar prapt tha. dharmashastroan mean bhi brahmanoan ko apatakal mean kshatriy tatha vaishy ka vyavasay apanane ki anumati di gee hai.

megasthaniz dvara bharatiy samaj ka vargikaran, bharatiy granthoan mean varnit vargikaran se bhinn hai. megasthaniz ne bharatiy samaj ko sat jatiyoan mean vibhakt kiya hai -

darshanik
kisan
ahir
karigar ya shilpi
sainik
nirikshak
sabhasad tatha any shasak varg.

megasthaniz ka yah varnan bharatiy varnavyavastha ya jati vyavastha se mel nahian khata. darshanikoan ki jati ko megasthaniz do shreniyoan mean vibhakt karata hai -

brahman
shraman.

brahman 37 varsh tak brahmachary ka palan karake grihasthashram mean pravesh karate the. brahmanoan ki vritti ke sambandh mean megasthaniz likhata hai ki yajn, atyeshti kriya tatha any dharmik krity karavane ke badale mean unhean bahumooly dakshina milati hai. shramanoan ko bhi do shreniyoan mean baanta gaya hai. jo vanoan mean rahate the aur kand-mool-phaloan par ajivika chalate the inhean vaikhanas ya vanaprasth ashram se sambaddh mana ja sakata hai. doosari shreni ke shraman ve the jo ayurved mean kushal hote the aur samaj mean sammanit the. megasthaniz ke shraman tatha brahman, vanaprasthashram athava sannyasiyoan se adhik mel khate haian, jain aur bauddh dharmoan se nahian. mauryakalin bharatiy samaj ka jo saptavargiy chitran megasthanij ne prastut kiya hai, usamean jati, varn aur vyavasay ke aantar ko bhula diya gaya hai. sambhavatah ek videshi hone ke karan megasthanij bharatiy samaj ki jatilataoan ko samajhane mean asamarth tha.

parivar mean striyoan ki sthiti smritikal ki apeksha ab adhik surakshit thi. unhean punarvivah tatha niyog ki anumati thi. kintu phir bhi maury kal mean striyoan ki sthiti ko adhik unnat nahian kaha ja sakata. unhean bahar jane ki svatantrata nahian thi aur pati ki ichchha ke viruddh ve koee kary nahian kar sakati thian. sanbhraant ghar ki striyaan prayah ghar ke aandar hi rahati thi. kautily ne aisi striyoan ko 'anishkasini' kaha hai. rajagharane ke aantahpur ka ullekh arthashastr tatha ashok ke abhilekhoan mean hai. kautily ke arthashastr se sati pratha ke prachalit hone ka koee praman nahian milata. is samay ke dharmashastr is pratha ke viruddh the. bauddh tatha jain anushrutiyoan mean bhi isaka ullekh nahian hai. kintu yoonani lekhakoan ne uttar pashchim mean sainikoan ki striyoan ke sati hone ka ullekh kiya hai. yoddha varg ki striyoan mean sati ki yah pratha prachalit rahi hogi.

maury yug mean bhi bahut si striyaan aisi thian jo vivah dvara parivarik jivan n bitakar 'ganika' ya 'veshya' ke roop mean jivan yapan karati thian. ve anek prakar se raja ka manoranjan karati thian. svatantr roop se veshyavritti karane vali striyaan 'roopajiva' kahalati thian. inase rajy ko ay hoti thi. inake karyoan ka nirikshan ganikadhyaksh tatha ek rajapurush karata tha. bahut si ganikaean guptachar vibhag mean bhi kam karati thian.

nagaroan ka jivan chahal pahal ka tha. nat, nartak, gayak, vadak, tamasha dikhane vale, rassi par nachane vale tatha madari gaanvoan aur nagaroan mean apani kala ka pradarshan karate the. in kalakaroan ke gaanvoan mean pravesh par nishedh tha kintu nagaroan mean aisa pratibandh nahian tha. nagaroan mean prekshaean lokapriy thian. stri aur purush kalakar donoan prekshaoan mean bhag lete the. inhean rangopajivi tatha rangopajivini kahate the.

vihar, yatra, samaj, pravahan any madhyam se jinake dvara janata samoohik roop se apana manoranjan karati thi. ek prakar se samaj ke ve jinamean log surapan, maans bhakshan tatha mallayuz ko dekhakar manoranjan karate the. ashok ko ye samaj pasand nahian the. atah usane ne samajoan ka prarambh kiya jinamean hasti, agnistanbh tatha vimanoan ki jhakiyaan dikhaee jati thian, taki logoan mean dharmacharan ko protsahan mile. kuchh aise samaj bhi the jo sarasvati ke bhavan mean ayojit hote the aur inamean sahityik natakoan ka abhinay tatha goshthiyoan ka ayojan hota tha. vihar yatraoan mean mrigaya aur surapan ki pradhanata rahati thi. ashok ne in yatraoan ko band karava diya aur dhamm yatraoan ka prarambh kiya. pravahan bhi ek prakar ke samoohik samaroh the jinamean bhojy aur pey padarthoan ka prachurata se upayog kiya jata tha.

mauryakalin arthik vyavastha

rajy ki arthavyavastha krishi, pashupalan aur vanijy vyapar par adharit thi. inako sammilit roop se 'varta' kaha gaya hai arthat vritti ka sadhan. in vyavasayoan mean krishi mukhy tha. ek achchhe janapad ki visheshataoan ka ullekh karate hue kautily ne kaha hai ki bhoomi krishi yogy honi chahie. vah 'adev matrik' ho arthat aisi bhoomi ho ki usamean bina varsha ke achchhi kheti ho sake. megasthaniz ke anusar doosari jati mean kisan log haian jo doosaroan se sankhya mean adhik haian. any rajakiy sevaoan se mukt hone ke karan ve sara samay kheti mean lagate haian. megasthaniz ne age likha hai ki bhoomi pashuoan ke nirvah yogy hai tatha any khady padarth pradan karati haian. chooanki yahaan varsha sal mean do bar hoti hai, atah bharat mean do fasalean katate haian. desh ke prayah samast maidanoan mean aisi silan rahati hai jo bhoomi ko saman roop se upajaoo rakhati hai. megasthaniz ne is bat ko anek bar doharaya hai ki shatru, apani bhoomi par kam karate hue kisi ko hani nahian pahuanchata, kyoanki is varg (kisan) ke log sarvasadharan dvara hitakari mane jate haian. isalie hani se bachae jate haian.

krishi

rajakiy bhoomi par dasoan, karmakaroan aur qaidiyoan dvara jutaee aur buaee hoti thi. das, karmakaroan ko bhojan adi diya jata tha aur kary ke dauran naqad masik vetan bhi diya jata tha. parantu aisi bhi rajakiy bhoomi hoti thi jis par sitadhyaksh dvara kheti nahian karaee jati thi. aisi bhoomi par karad krishak kheti karate the. krishi yogy taiyar khetoan ko kheti ke lie kisanoan ko de diya jata. jo bhoomi krishi yogy n ho use yadi koee kheti ke yogy bana le to yah bhoomi usase vapas nahian li jati thi.

megasthaniz, strabo, airiyan ityadi yoonani lekhakoan ke anusar sari bhoomi raja ki hoti thi. ve raja ke lie kheti karate the aur ¼ bhag raja ko lagan dete the. yoonani lekhakoan ka abhipray rajakiy bhoomi se hai jo kisanoan ko bataee par di jati thi. kautily ke anusar yadi ve apane bij, bail aur hathiyar laean to ve upaj ke ½ bhag ke adhikari the. yadi krishi upakaran rajy dvara die jaean to ve ¼ ya 1/3 aansh ke bhagi the. is rajakiy bhoomi ke atirikt aisi bhoomi bhi thi, jo grihapatiyoan tatha any krishakoan ki niji bhoomi hoti thi, jis par ve kheti karate the aur upaj ka ek bhag kar ke roop mean raja ko dete the. yah aansh amataur par upaj ka chhatha bhag hota tha. kintu kabhi kabhi ¼ bhag bhi ho sakata tha. in krishakoan ke oopar niyamak adhikari, samaharta, sthanik tatha gop hote the, jo gaanvoan mean bhoomi tatha any prakar ki sampatti ke aank de tatha lekha rakhate the. rajy ki bhoomi ki vyavastha sitadhyaksh dvara hoti thi aur usase hone vali ay ko 'kautily sita' kaha hai. anek pramanoan se bhoomi par vyaktigat adhikar siddh hota hai. arthashastr mean kshetrak (bhoosvami) tatha upavas (kashtakar) ke bich spasht bhed dikhaya gaya hai. bhoomi ke sambandh mean 'svamy' ka ullekh hai. kaha gaya hai ki jis bhoomi ka svami nahian hai vah raja ki ho jati hai. 'svamy' se vyakti ka bhoomi par adhikar siddh ho jata hai. vyakti ko bhoomi ke kray tatha vikray ka adhikar tha.

rajy ki or se sianchaee ka uchit prabandh tha. ise 'setubandh' kaha gaya hai. isake aantargat talab, kuean tatha jhiloan par baandh banakar ek sthan par pani ekatrit karana ityadi nirman kary ate haian. mauryoan ke samay saurashtr mean sudarshan jhil ke baandh ka nirman is setubandh ka ek udaharan hai. sianchaee ke lie alag kar dena p data tha. jisaki dar upaj ka 1/5 se 1/3 bhag tak thi. bhoomikar aur sianchaee kar ko milakar kisan ko upaj ka qarib ½ bhag dena p data tha. rajy ke alava log svayan kuean khudavakar talab ya bav di banakar sianchaee ki vyavastha karate the. unhean prarambh mean chhoot dekar protsahit kiya jata tha. kintu kuchh samay bad unhean bhi sianchaee kar dena p data tha.

pashupalan

megasthaniz ne likha hai ki bharat mean durbhiksh (akal) nahian p date. kintu kautily ke arthashastr ke adhyayan se spasht hai ki durbhiksh p date the aur durbhiksh ke samay rajy dvara janata ki bhalaee ke upay kie jate the. jain anushruti ke anusar magadh mean 12 sal ka ek durbhiksh p da tha. sohagora aur mahasthan abhilekh mean durbhiksh ke avasar par rajy dvara, rajy koshthagar se anaj vitaran ka vivaran hai. isake atirikt van pradesh evan charagah the. van do prakar ke hote the -

'hastivan' jahaan par hathi rahate the. ye hathi rajy ki sampatti the aur l daee ke samay prayog kie jate the.
'dravyavan' jahaan se anek prakar ki lak di tatha loha, taanba ityadi dhatuean prapt hoti thi.

jangaloan par rajy ka adhikar tha. in vanoan ki upaj rajy ke koshthagaroan mean pahuanchaee jati thi aur vahaan se karakhanoan mean, jahaan lak di, mitti tatha dhatu ki anek upayogi vastuean tatha yuddh ke lie astr shastr banae jate the. karakhanoan mean bani vastuean panyadhyaksh ke niyantran mean bazaroan mean bechi jati thian.

vyapar

mauryoan ke shasanakal mean rajanitik ekata tatha shaktishali kendriy shasan ke niyantran se shilpoan ko protsahan mila. prashasanik sudhar ke sath vyapar ki suvidhaean aur vyapar ka poshan karane vale shilpoan ne chhote chhote udyogoan ka roop dharan kar liya. megasthaniz ne shilpiyoan ko chauthi jati mana hai. usake anusar, uname se kuchh rajy ko kar dete the aur niyat sevaean bhi karate the. purana niyam yah tha ki shilpi kar ke badale mahine mean ek din raja ke yahaan kam karate the. yah niyam gair sarakari shilpiyoan ke lie tha, kintu jo raja ke shilpi hote the, ve anek prakar ki dhatuoan, lak diyoan tatha pattharoan se rajy ke lie vividh vastuoan ka nirman karate the. megasthaniz ne jahaz banane valoan, kavach tatha ayudhoan ka nirman karane valoan aur kheti ke lie anek prakar ke auzar banane valoan ka ullekh kiya hai. khanoan aur jangaloan se prapt dhatu tatha lak di se rajy anek prakar ke udyogoan ka sanchalan karata tha. vastr udyog bhi rajy ke dvara sanchalit tha. atah in vividh udyogoan mean anek shilpi vibhinn adhyakshoan ke nirikshan mean kary karate the aur rajy se vetan pate the. kintu anek svatantr shilpi bhi the. ye shreniyoan mean sangathit the. shreniyoan mean sangathit hone se unake vetan tatha any adhikar adhik surakshit the. shilpi ke jivan tatha sampatti suraksha ki rajy ki or se poori vyavastha thi.

maury yug ka pradhan udyog soot katane aur bunane ka tha. oon, reshe, kapas, shan kshom aur resham soot katane ke lie prayukt hote the. arthashastr se pata chalata hai ki kashi, vang, pundr, kaliang, malava sooti vastr ke lie prasiddh the. kashi aur pundr mean reshami kap de bhi banate the. prachin kal se vang ka malamal vishvavikhyat tha. chin patt ka ullekh kautily mean hai jisase pata chalata hai ki resham chin se ata tha. megasthaniz ne bharatiy vastroan ki b di prashansa ki hai. sarakari karakhanoan ke atirikt julahe svatantr roop se bhi kary karate the.

khanoan se kachchi dhatu nikalane, use galane, shuddh karane aur lachila banane ki kriya ki achchhi janakari prapt ho chuki thi. megasthaniz ne bharat mean anek prakar ki dhatuoan ki khadan ka zikr kiya hai, jaise sona, chaandi, taanba, loha adi. inaka upayog abhooshan, bartan, yuddh ke hathiyar, sikke adi banane ke lie kiya jata tha. lohadhyaksh ke nirikshan mean yuddh ke hathiyar tatha krishi ke upakaran banane ke lie lohe ka upayog kiya jata tha. sone aur chaandi ke anek prakar ke abhooshan tatha sikke suvarnadhyaksh v lakshanadhyaksh ke nirikshan mean banate the.

mani muktaoan ka upayog samriddh parivaroan mean hota tha. motiyoan ko anek l diyoan mean pirokar har banae jate the, jo gale mean pahane jate the. mukta l diyaan kamar aur hathoan ko sajane ke lie upayog mean laee jati thi. is prakar manikar aur suvarnakar rajagharane tatha samriddh parivaroan ki avashyakataoan ki poorti karate the.

in udyogoan ke atirikt kee any udyog bhi maury kal mean achchhi avastha mean the, jaise - hathi daant ka kam karane vale, mitti ke bartan banane vale tatha charmakar. pashuoan ki khal joote banane, varm ya dhal banane ke lie upayog mean laee jati thi.

niyarkas ne likha hai ki bharatiy shvet rang ke joote pahanate haian, jo ki ati sundar hote haian. inaki e diyaan kuchh ooanchi banaee jati haian. hathidaant ke kam mean bharatiy bahut pahale se hi kushal the.

eriyan ne samriddh parivaroan ke dvara hathidaant ke karnabhooshan ka istemal kie jane ka ullekh kiya hai. yadyapi kautily ne kumbhakar ki shreniyoan ka ullekh nahian kiya hai. phir bhi hamean maloom hai ki mitti ke bartan sadharan logoan ke dvara b di matra mean upayog mean lae jate the. maury kal ke kali opadar mitti ke bartan mile haian, jo puratattvavettaoan ke anusar ooanche varg ke logoan ke dvara prayog mean lae jate the. patthar tarashane ka vyavasay bhi vikasit avastha mean raha hoga. ashok ke samay mean ek hi patthar ke bane hue stanbh isaka jvalant praman haian. patthar par palish ka kam apane charamotkarsh par tha. saranath sianh stanbh tatha barabar gufaoan ki chamak advitiy hai.

mauryakalin vyapar

bharatavarsh ke vibhinn rajyoan ke ek shasan sootr mean bandhane se vyapar ko protsahan mila. prashasanik evan sainik avashyakata ke karan yatayat marg mean vriddhi huee tatha margoan ki suraksha bhi badhi. krishi tatha udyogoan ke lie vastuean desh ke vibhinn bhagoan mean ek sthan se doosare sthan par asani se pahuanchati thi. uttar pashchimi bhag yoonaniyoan ke adhikar se mauryoan ke adhikar mean a gaya. dakshin ki vijay se dakshin aur pashchim vyapar marg par mauryoan ka niyantran ho gaya. kaliang ki vijay se poorv aur poorv—dakshin vyapar marg nishkantak ho gaya. megasthaniz ke vivaran ke spasht hai ki marg nirman ka ek vishesh adhikari tha jo 'egronomoee' kahalata tha. ye s dakoan ki dekharekh karate the aur 10 stediya ki doori par ek stanbh kh da kar dete the. samrajy ke rajamargoan mean uttar pashchim ko pataliputr se milane vala rajamarg tha. megasthaniz ke anusar isaki lambaee 1,300 mil thi. pataliputr ke age yah marg tamralipti (tamaluk) tak jata tha. himalay ki or jane vale marg ki tulana dakshin ko jane vale marg se karate hue kautily ne dakshin marg adhik labhadayak bataya hai, kyoanki dakshin se bahumooly vyapar ki vastue jaise mukta, mani, hire, sona, shankh ityadi ate the.

jalamargiy vyapar

dakshin ke lie ek purana marg shravasti se godavari ke tatavarti nagar pratishthan tak jata tha. isi marg ko sambhavatah uttari maisoor tak age badhaya gaya. krishnaa, godavari aur tuangabhadra ke kinare hote hue kee marg vyapar sainik abhiyan tatha shasan ki avashyakata ke anusar banae ge hoange. uttar ki or ek purana marg chanpa se banaras tak aur vahaan se jamuna ke kinare kinare kaushaanbi tak jata tha. isake bad sthal marg se kaushabi se siandhu saubir tak vyapar marg jata tha. ek tisara marg shravasti se rajagrih tak tha.

pashchimi tat par bhi samudri marg bh doch aur kathiyava d hokar lanka tak jata tha. pashchimi tat par sopara bhi mahattvapoorn bandaragah tha. poorv mean jahaz bangal mean tamralipti ke bandaragah se poorvi tat ke anek bandaragah se hote hue shrilanka jate the. romila thapar ke anusar ashok dvara kaliang ki vijay ka ek karan vyapar ki drishti se kaliang ka mahattv tha. mahanadi aur godavari ke bich sthit hone ke karan bangal aur dakshin ka vyapar surakshit nahian tha.

sthalamargiy vyapar

kautily ne sthalamargiy vyapar ki apeksha nadi margoan se vyapar ko adhik surakshit mana hai kyoanki yah chor dakuoan ke bhay se apekshakrit mukt tha. kintu nadiyoan se vyapar sthayi nahian tha. sthal marg mean anek kathinaiyaan thian, choroan aur jangali janavaroan se vishesh bhay tha. marusthal ki yatra atyant kathin thi. khataroan aur kathinaiyoan ke karan vyapari kafiloan mean sangathit hokar chalate the. vyapariyoan ko yatayat aur suraksha sambandhi suvidhaean prapt thian. yadi marg mean vyapariyoan ka nuqasan ho jae to rajy kshatipoorti karata tha. isake badale vyapariyoan se anek shulk lie jate the.

aantardeshiy vyapar ki bhaanti hi sthal aur jalamarg se videshoan ke sath vyapar ko mauryoan ke susangathit shasan se labh prapt hua. yoonani shasakoan ke sath maitripoorn sambandh ki vajah se pashchimi eshiya aur misr ke sath bharat ke vyapar ke lie anukool vatavaran bana. ek mukhy sthal marg takshashila se qabul, baiktriya, aur vahaan se pashchimi deshoan ki taraf jata tha.

samudri marg

samudri marg bharat ke pashchimi samudr tat se faras ki kha di hote hue adan tak jata tha. bharat se aur misr se ane vali vyapar vastuoan ka vinimay arab sagar ke tatavarti bandaragahoan par hota tha. bharat se misr ko hathi daant, kachhue, sipiyaan, moti, rang, nil aur bahumooly lak di niryat hoti thi.

praja ke hit ke lie shilpiyoan aur vyapariyoan par sarakar ka niyantran tha. vyapariyoan ko adesh tha ki purana mal sansthadhyaksh ki ajna ke bina n to becha ja sakata tha aur n hi bandhak rakha ja sakata tha. map aur tol ka prati chauthe mahine rajy karmachariyoan ke dvara nirikshan hota tha. kam taulane vale ko dand diya jata tha. labh ki dar nishchit thi. deshaj vastuoan par 4 pratishat aur ayat vastuoan par 10 pratishat bikri kar liya jata tha. megasthaniz ke anusar bikri kar n dene vale ke lie mrityudand tha.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

tika tippani aur sandarbh

sambandhit lekh

varnamala kramanusar lekh khoj

a a i ee u oo e ai o au aan k kh g gh n ch chh j jh n t th d dh n t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l v sh sh s h ksh tr jn rri rri aau shr aah