उच्चतम न्यायालय

[[chitr:Supreme-Court.jpg|thumb|250px|uchchatam nyayalay, bharat
Supreme Court, India]] bharat ka uchchatam nyayalay athava bharat ka sarvochch nyayalay bharat ka shirsh nyayik pradhikaran hai, jise bharatiy sanvidhan ke bhag 5, adhyay 4 ke tahat sthapit kiya gaya hai. bharatiy sangh ki adhikatam aur vyapak nyayik adhikarita uchchatam nyayalay ko prapt haian. bharatiy sanvidhan ke anusar uchchatam nyayalay ki bhoomika sanghiy nyayalay aur bharatiy sanvidhan ke sanrakshak ki hai. sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 124 mean uchchatam nyayalay ke gathan ke sambandh mean pravadhan kiya gaya hai, jisamean yah kaha gaya hai ki, uchchatam nyayalay mean ek mukhy nyayadhish tatha 7 any nyayadhish hoange tatha sansad samay-samay par nyayadhishoan ki sankhya ka nirdharan kar sakati hai. sansad ne nyayadhishoan ki sankhya ko nirdharit karane ke lie 1956 mean uchchatam nyayalay (nyayadhishoan ki sankhya) adhiniyam, 1956 parit kiya aur nyayadhishoan ki sankhya 10 kar di. is adhiniyam mean sanshodhan karake nyayadhishoan ki sankhya mean kee bar vriddhi ki gee hai.

gathan

bharat ke ek sanprabhu lokataantrik ganarajy banane ke do din bad 28 janavari san 1950 ko bharat ka uchchatam nyayalay astitv mean aya. udghatan samaroh ka ayojan sansad bhavan ke nareandramandal (cheanbar aauf priansez) bhavan mean kiya gaya tha. isase pahale sanh 1937 se 1950 tak chaianbar aauf prianses hi bharat ki sanghiy adalat ka bhavan tha. azadi ke bad bhi sanh 1958 tak chaianbar aauf prianses hi bharat ke uchchatam nyayalay ka bhavan tha, jab tak ki 1958 mean uchchatam nyayalay ne apane vartaman tilak marg, nee dilli sthit parisar ka adhigrahan kiya. bharat ke uchchatam nyayalay ne bharatiy adalat pranali ke shirsh par pahuanchate hue bharat ki sanghiy adalat aur privi kauansil ki nyayik samiti ko pratisthapit kiya tha. 28 janavari, 1950 ko isake udghatan ke bad, uchchatam nyayalay ne sansad bhavan ke chaianbar aauf prianses mean apani baithakoan ki shuruat ki. uchchatam nyayalay bar esosieshan (es.si.bi.e.) sarvochch nyayalay ki bar hai.

nyayadhishoan ki sankhya vriddhi

nyayadhishoan ki sankhya mean 1960 mean 13, 1977 mean 17 tatha 1986 mean 25 tak ki vriddhi kar di gee. vartaman samay mean uchchatam nyayalay mean ek mukhy nyayadhish aur 25 any nyayadhish (kul 26 nyayadhish) haian. 21 faravari, 2008 ko kendriy mantrimandal ne ek mahattvapoorn nirnay mean uchchatam nyayalay mean nyayadhishoan ki sankhya 26 se badhakar 31 (mukhy nyayadhish sahit) karane ka nirnay liya. isake lie 22 disambar, 2008 ko lokasabha ke dvara uchchatam nyayalay nyayadhish sankhya vidheyak, 2008 parit kiya gaya hai. is vidheyak mean uchchatam nyayalay mean nyayadhishoan ki adhikatam sankhya mukhy nyayadhish ke atirikt 30 karane ka pravadhan hai. ise vaidhanik roop pradan karane ke lie uchchatam nyayalay (nyayadhishoan ki sankhya) adhiniyam, 1956 mean sanshodhan kiya jaega.

mukhyapith

uchchatam nyayalay ki mukhyapith nee dilli mean sthit hai, lekin yah nee dilli ke atirikt kisi any sthan par bhi sunavaee kar sakata hai. is any sthan ka nirdharan mukhy nyayadhish rashtrapati ki anumati se kar sakata hai. vidhi evan nyay par sansadiy samiti ke dvara prastut 32vian riport mean uchchatam nyayalay ki kshetriy pithean pashchim, dakshin v poorvottar kshetroan mean sthapit karane ki sifarish ki gayi hai. samiti ne apani riport mean kaha hai ki nirdhanoan, zarooratamando ki nyay tak pahuanch ko sulabh banane ke lie uchchatam nyayalay ki kshetriy pithean sthapit ki jani chahie. isase aise zarooratamandoan ko, jo nirdhanata ke karan dilli tak nahian pahuanch pate haian, kam kharch par nyay upalabdh karaya ja sakega. prayog ke taur par aisi pahali pith dakshin mean chennee mean sthapit karane ki salah samiti ne di hai.

yogyata

uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhish ke roop mean niyukt hone ke lie kisi bhi vyakti se nimnalikhit yogyataaauan ki apeksha ki jati hai-

1. vah bharat ka nagarik ho,
2. vah kisi uchch nyayalay mean lagatar kam se kam 10 varsh tak nyayadhish rah chuka ho,
3. vah uchch nyayalay ya kisi bhi nyayalay mean kam se kam 10 varsh se vidhi vyavasay kar raha ho,
4. vah rashtrapati ki ray se labdhapratishth vidhevetta ho.

mukhy nyayadhish ki niyukti

uchchatam nyayalay ke mukhy nyayadhish ki niyukti rashtrapati dvara (anuchchhed 124) ki jati hai. sanvidhan mean uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ki niyukti ke sambandh mean keval yah pravadhan kiya gaya hai ki rashtrapati uchchtam nyayalay ke aur rajyoan ke uchch nyayalayoan ke aise nyayadhishoan se, jinase paramarsh karana vah avashyak samajhe, paramarsh karane ke pashchath uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ki niyukti karega. isase yah pratit hota hai ki sanvidhan mean uchchatam nyayalay ke mukhy nyayadhish ki niyukti ke sambandh mean alag se koee pravadhan nahian kiya gaya hai. sanvidhan ke pravartan ke bad yah pratha aangikar ki gayi ki uchchatam nyayalay ke varishthatam nyayadhish ko mukhy nyayadhish ke pad par niyukt kiya jaega. yah pratha 1951 se 1973 tak ki kalavadhi tak svikar ki jati rahi, sivay nyayamoorti eenam, jo lakave ke shikar ho gaye the, ko chho dakar. nyayadhish eenam ke sthan par nyayamoorti pi. vi. gajendr g dakar ko mukhy nyayadhish niyukt kiya gaya tha. lekin 1973 mean is pratha ka ullanghan kiya gaya aur uchchatam nyayalay ke 3 varishthatam nyayadhishoan (nyayamoorti je. es. shelat, ke. es. heg de tatha e. en. grovar) ki varishthata ka ullandhan karake nyayamoorti ajit nath re ko bharat ka mukhy nyayadhish niyukt kiya gaya. isi tarah 1977 mean nyayamoorti ech. ar. khanna ki varishthata ka ullanghan kar nyayamoorti em. ech. beg ko bharat ka mukhy nyayadhish niyukt kiya gaya tha. in mamaloan ko chho dakar sadaiv mukhy nyayadhish ki niyukti mean varishthata ke siddhant ka palan kiya gaya hai. 6 aktoobar, 1993 ko uchchatam nyayalay dvara diye gaye ek nirnay ke anusar mukhy nyayadhish ki niyukti mean varishthata ke siddhant ka palan kiya jana chahie.

any nyayadhishoan ki niyukti

mukhy nyayadhish ke atirikt any nyayadhishoan ki niyukti rashtrapati ke dvara ki jati hai (anuchchhed 124). rashtrapati nyayadhishoan ki niyukti karate samay bharat ke mukhy nyayadhish, uchchatam nyayalay tatha uchch nyayalayoan ke aise nyayadhishoan se paramarsh karata hai, jinase paramarsh karana vah avashyakat samajhata hai. 6 aktoobar, 1993 ko uchchatam nyayalay ne ek nirnay diya, jisake anusar nyayadhishoan ko niyukt karate samay rashtrapati ko mukhy nyayadhish ki ray ko variyata deni chahie aur yadi kisi mamale mean mukhy nyayadhish ki ray n mani jaye to isaka karan bataya jana chahie.

1999 mean uchchatam nyayalay ki 9 sadasyiy sanvidhan pith ne sarvasammati se yah abhinirdharit kiya hai ki uchchatam nyayalay aur uchch nyayalayoan ke nyayadhishoan ki niyukti aur sthanantaran ke mamale mean 1993 ke nirnay mean pratipadan paramarsh prakriya ka palan kiye bina mukhy nyayadhish dvara ki gee sifarishoan ko manane ke lie karyapalika badhy nahian hai. is prakar sanvidhan pith ne yah abhinirdharit kiya hai ki uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ke mamale mean mukhy nyayadhish ko uchchatam nyayalay ke 4 varishthatam nyayadhishoan ke samooh k aaulejiyam se paramarsh karake hi rashtrapati ko apani sifarish bhejani chahie. 1993 ke nirnay mean keval 2 varishthatam nyayadhishoan se paramarsh karane ki badhyata thi. yah abhinirdharit kiya gaya hai ki uchch nyayalayoan mean nyayadhishoan ki niyukti ke mamale mean uchchatam nyayalay ke keval 2 varishthatam nyayadhishoan ki salah lena avashyak hai. kintu sthanantaran ke mamale mean uchchatam nyayalay ke 4 varishthatam nyayadhishoan se paramarsh karana anivary hai. sath hi sambandhit uchch nyayalayoan, jisase sthanantaran kiya gaya hai aur jisako sthanantaran kiya gaya hai, un mukhy nyayadhishoan se paramarsh karana bhi anivary hai.

karyakari mukhy nyayadhish ki niyukti

sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 126 mean karyakari mukhy nyayadhish ko niyukt karane ke sambandh mean pravadhan kiya gaya hai, jisake anusar jab kabhi bhi mukhy nyayadhish ka pad rikt ho ya mukhy nyayadhish apane kartavyoan ka palan karane mean asamarth ho ya mukhy nyayadhish ko sansad ke dvara parit samavedan par rashtrapati dvara usake pad se hata diya gaya ho, usane svayan tyagapatr de diya ho, to rashtrapati uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan mean se kisi bhi nyayadhish ko mukhy nyayadhish ke kartavyoan ka palan karane ke lie niyukt kar sakata hai.

tadarth nyayadhishoan ki niyukti

mukhy nyayadhish rashtrapati ki poorv sahamati se uchchatam nyayalay mean nyayadhish ke roop mean niyukt kiye jane ki yogyata rakhane vale kisi uchch nyayalay ke nyayadhish ko sambaddh uchch nyayalay ke mukhy nyayadhish se paramarsh karake tab tadarth nyayadhish ke roop mean niyukt kar sakata hai, jab uchchatam nyayalay ke satr ko ayojit karane ya chaloo rakhane ke lie nyayadhishoan ki avashyakata ho (anuchchhed 127). is prakar niyukt kiye gaye nyayadhish ko uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ki sabhi adhikarita, shaktiyaan aur visheshadhikar tab tak prapt hoange, jab tak vah uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhish ke roop mean kary karata hai.

shapath grahan

uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ko rashtrapati unake pad ki shapath grahan karata hai (anuchchhed 124(6). nyayadhish nimnalikhit ke lie shapath grahan karata hai–

1. vidhi dvara sthapit bharat ke sanvidhan ke prati sachchi shraddha aur nishtha rakhane ke lie,
2. bharat ki prabhuta tatha akhandata ko akshunn rakhane ke lie,
3. samyakh prakar se shraddhapoorvak tatha apani poori yogyata, jnan aur vivek se apane pad ke kartavyoan ka bhay ya pakshapat, anurag ya dvesh bina palan karane ke lie tatha
4. sanvidhan evan vidhiyoan ki maryada banae rakhane ke lie.

kary avadhi

anuchchhed 124(2) ke anusar, uchchatam nyayalay ka nyayadhish 65 varsh ki ayu poori karane tak apane pad par bana rahata hai, yadi vah rashtrapati dvara asamarthata ya kadachar se apane pad se n hata diya jae. rashtrapati asamarthata ya kadachar ke adhar par nyayadhish ko hatane ka adesh tab parit karata hai, jab sansad do tihaee bahumat se aisa karane ka prastav arthath mahabhiyog parit kare.

isake atirikt nyayadhish 65 varsh ki ayu poori karane ke pahale kisi bhi samay rashtrapati ko apana tyagapatr de sakata hai. rashtrapati dvara tyagapatr svikar karane ke pahale vah apana tyagapatr vapas le sakata hai. ab tak 1967 mean mukhy nyayadhish ke. subbarav rashtrapati ka chunav l dane ke lie, tatha 1984 mean nyayamoorti baharul islam ne lokasabha ka chunav l dane ke lie tyagapatr diya tha.

vetan tatha bhatta

1950 mean jab sanvidhan ko lagoo kiya gaya tha, tab mukhy nyayadhish ka vetan 5,000 rupaye tatha any nyayadhishoan ka vetan 4,000 rupaye tha, jise bad mean badhakar mukhy nyayadhish ko 33,000 rupaye tatha any nyayadhishoan ko 30,000 rupaye pratimah kar diya gaya tha. isake atirikt mukhy nyayadhish 1250 rupaye tatha any nyayadhishoan ko 750 rupaye masik kharch tatha 1,000 rupaye pratimah bijali yatra kharch, rahane ke lie kiraya vihin sarakari bangala, kar tatha 150 litar petrol pratimah milata hai. 15 janavari, 2009 ko kendr sarakar dvara jari adhisoochana ke anusar mukhy nyayadhish ka vetan 33,000 rupaye se badhakar 1,00,000 rupaye pratimah tatha any nyayadhishoan ka vetan 26,000 rupaye se badhakar 90,000 rupaye pratimah kar diya gaya hai. yah vetanaman 1 janavari, 2006 se prabhavi kiya gaya hai. isake lie disambar, 2008 mean uchch nyayalay v uchchatam nyayalay (nyayadhish) vetan evan seva shart sanshodhan vidheyak, 2008 parit kiya gaya hai. isase poorv 12 sitambar, 2008 ko nyayadhishoan ke vetan evan bhatte mean tin guna vriddhi ki sifarish ki gee thi. bharat ke mukhy nyayadhish ke dvara gathit tin nyayadhishoan ke painal mean uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhish nyayamoorti ashok bhan aur nyayamoorti alatamas kabir tatha madras uchch nyayalay ke nyayadhish nyayamoorti e. pi. sianh shamil the. uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ke visheshadhikaroan aur vetan bhattoan mean unaki niyukti ke pashchath koee aisa parivartan nahian kiya jaega, jo unake lie alabhakari ho (anuchchhed 125). inaka samast vetan evan bhatte sanchit nidhi par bharit hote haian.

sampatti ki svaichchhik ghoshana

uchchatam nyayalay v uchch nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ko apani sampatti ka byaura sarvajanik karane sambandhi koee sanvaidhanik pravadhan nahian hai. isake viparit agast, 2009 mean uchchatam nyayalay ke nyayadhishoan ne svechchha se apani sampatti ka byaura sarvajanik karane ka nirnay liya. isase poorv 1997 se prabhavi ek prastav ke tahat uchchatam nyayalay ke sabhi nyayadhish apani sampatti ka byaura mukhy nyayadhish ko sauanpate rahe haian, jise sarvajanik nahian kiya jata hai.

abhilekh nyayalay

sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 129 ke anusar, bharat ka sarvochch nyayalay ek abhilekh nyayalay hai. samanyat: abhilekh nyayalay se ashay us uchch nyayalay se hai, jisake nirnay sada ke lie lekhabaddh hote haian aur jisake abhilekhoan ka pramanit mooly hota hai. bharat ke sarvochch nyayalay ko abhilekh nyayalay ki sabhi shaktiyaan prapt haian, jinamean avamanana ke lie dand bhi sammilit hai.

nyayalay ka kshetradhikar

uchchatam nyayalay ko nimnalikhit mamaloan mean kshetradhikar prapt haian–

prarambhik kshetradhikar

uchchatam nyayalay ke prarambhik kshetradhikar ke aantargat aise mamale ate haian, jinaki sunavaee karane ka adhikar kisi uchch nyayalay athava adhinasth nyayalayoan ko nahian hota hai (anuchchhed 131). uchchatam nyayalay ko nimnalikhit mamaloan mean prarambhik kshetradhikar prapt haian–

1. bharat sangh tatha ek ya ek se adhik rajyoan ke madhy utpann vivadoan mean,
2. bharat sangh tatha koee ek rajy ya anek rajyoan aur ek ya ek se adhik rajyoan ke bich vivadoan mean,
3. do ya do se adhik rajyoan ke bich aise vivad mean, jisamean unake vaidhanik adhikaroan ka prashn nihit ho.

prarambhik kshetradhikar ke aantargat uchchatam nyayalay usi vivad ko nirnay ke lie svikar karega, jisamean kisi tathy ya vidhi ka prashn shamil hai.

samavarti prarambhik kshetradhikar

mooladhikaroan ko pravartit karane ke lie uchchatam nyayalay ke pas samavarti prarambhik kshetradhikar haian. in adhikaroan ko lagoo karane ke lie sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 32 ke adhin uchchatam nyayalay bandi pratyakshikaran, paramadesh, pratishedh, adhikar prichchha tatha utpreshan rit jari kar sakata hai.

apiliy kshetradhikar

desh ka sabase b da apiliy nyayalay uchchatam nyayalay hai. ise bharat ke sabhi uchch nyayalay ke nirnayoan ke viruddh apil sunane ka adhikar hai (anuchchhed 132). uchchatam nyayalay mean nimnilikhit mamaloan mean apil ki ja sakati hai-
(1) sanvaidhanik mamale – sanvaidhanik mamaloan mean uchch nyayalayoan ke nirnay, dikri tatha antim adesh ke viruddh uchchatam nyayalay mean tabhi apil ki ja sakati hai, jab sanvidhan ki vyakhya se sambandhit vidhi ke kisi mahattvapoorn prashn par anek uchch nyayalayoan ne bhinn-bhinn nirnay diye hoan aur uchchatam nyayalay ne apana nirnay diya ho. sanvaidhanik mamaloan mean ki gayi apil ki sunavaee ke lie sanvaidhanik pith ka gathan kiya jata hai, jisamean kam se kam 5 nyayadhish shamil kiye jate haian. sanvaidhanik mamaloan mean apil tab ki ja sakati hai, jab–

• uchch nyayalay yah pramanapatr de de, ki mamaloan mean vidhi ka bahut jatil prashn nihit hai, jisake lie sanvidhan ki vyakhya avashyak hai.
• uchch nyayalay pramanapatr n de, tab uchchatam nyayalay is sambandh mean svayan apil karane ki ajna de sakata hai.

(2) divani mamale – sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 133 ke anusar bharat ke rajy kshetr mean sthit kisi uchch nyayalay ke nirnay ke viruddh uchchatam nyayalay mean tab apil ki ja sakati hai, jab uchchatam nyayalay yah pramanit kar de ki–

• mamaloan mean vidhi ya sarvajanik mahatv ka koee sarabhoot prashn shamil hai, tatha
• mamale ka nirnay uchchatam nyayalay dvara kiya jana avashyak hai.

(3) aparadhik mamale – kisi uchch nyayalay dvara aparadhik athava faujadari mamale mean diye gaye nirnay ke viruddh apil ki ja sakati hai (anuchchhed 134), yadi–

• uchch nyayalay ne apil mean kisi abhiyukt ki dosh mukti ke adesh ko parivartit karake use mrityu dandadesh diya hai,
• kisi uchch nyayalay ne apane kshetradhikar ke aantargat kisi adhinasth nyayalay mean lambit vad ko parikshan ke lie apane pas antarit kar liya hai aur abhiyukt ko doshasiddh karake mrityudand diya hai.
• uchch nyayalay pramanit kar deta hai, ki mamala uchchatam nyayalay mean apil kiye jane yogy hai.

(4) vishesh ijajat se apil – jab uchchatam nyayalay apane vivek se kisi uchch nyayalay ya nyayik adhikaran ke nirnay ke viruddh apil karane ki ijazat de, tab uchchatam nyayalay mean apil ki ja sakati hai (anuchchhed 136). yah upabandh sashastr baloan vale kisi qanoon dvara ya kisi nyayalay ya nyayik adhikaran dvara diye gaye kisi nirnay, dikri ya adesh dvara lagoo nahian hota.

44vean sanvidhan sanshodhan dvara yah abhinirdharit kiya gaya hai ki uchchatam nyayalay dvara apil ke lie vishesh anumati dene ke adhikar ko ab sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 136 dvara niyamit kiya jaega. ab saman prakriti ke vad ko kisi paksh ya vyakti dvara uchchatam nyayalay mean upasthit kiya ja sakata hai. isase poorv mahanyayavadi ke avedan par hi uchchatam nyayalay karravaee kar sakata hai. jab uchchatam nyayalay mahanyayavadi ya kisi paksh ke avedan se santusht hai ki kisi vad ya vadoan mean ek hi qanoon aantarnihit hai aur vah kisi uchch nyayalay ya uchch nyayalayoan mean vicharadhin hai, to use apane yahaan mangakar un par nirnay kar sakata hai.

paramarshadatri kshetradhikar

sanvidhan ke anuchchhed 143 ke tahat rashtrapati ko yah adhikar hai, ki jab use yah pratit ho ki vidhi ya tathy ka koee aisa prashn utpann ho gaya hai ya utpann hone ki sambhana hai, jo ki aisi prakriti ya aise vyapak mahatv ka hai ki us par uchchatam nyayalay ki ray prapt karana avashyak hai, to vah us prashn par uchchatam nyayalay ki ray maang sakata hai. uchchatam nyayalay mamale ki sunavaee karake us par apani ray rashtrapati ko de sakata hai. yahaan par yah ullekhaniy hai ki uchchatam nyayalay n to rashtrapati ko ray dene ke lie badhy hai aur n hi rashtrapati uchchatam nyayalay dvara di gee ray ko manane ke lie badhy hai. rashtrapati nimnalikhat mamaloan mean ab tak uchchatam nyayalay ki ray maang chuke haian–

1. 1951 mean 'in d delhi laj ekt' ke mamale mean,
2. 1952 mean 'in d si kastams ekt' ke mamale mean,
3. 1956 mean 'in d beroobari' ke mamale mean,
4. 1958 mean 'in d keral ejukeshan' ke mamale mean,
5. 1965 mean keshav sianh ke mamale mean,
6. 1974 mean 'in d presidensiyal pol' ke mamale mean,
7. 1978 mean 'in d speshal kort ripharens' ke mamale mean,
8. 1991 mean 'in d maitar aph kaveri vatar dispyoots tribyoonal' ke mamale mean,
9. 1993 mean 'in d ramajanm bhoomi-babari masjid vivad' ke mamale mean,
10. 1998 mean nyayadhishoan ki niyukti ke mamale mean.

ukt mamaloan mean se pratham 8 mean uchchtam nyayalay ne rashtrapati ko apana paramarsh diya hai. par 24 aktoobar, 1994 ko ramajanm bhoomi-babari masjid ke mamale mean mukhy nyayadhish em. en. vaiankatachalaiya ki adhyakshata vali uchchtam nyayalay ki paanch sadasyiy sanvidhan pith ne rashtrapati dvara maangi gayi ray ka koee jabav dene se inkar kar diya.

punarvilokan kshetradhikar

uchchatam nyayalay ko sansad ya vidhan mandaloan dvara parit kisi adhiniyam tatha karyapalika dvara diye gaye kisi adesh ki vaidhanikata ka punarvilokan karane ka adhikar hai (anuchchhed 137).

antaran ka kshetradhikar

uchchatam nyayalay ko nimn adhikar bhi pradan kiye ge haian-

1. vah uchch nyayalayoan mean lambit mamaloan ko apane yahaan antarit kar sakata hai.
2. vah kisi uchch nyayalay mean lambit mamaloan ko doosare uchch nyayalay mean antarit kar sakata hai.

janahit yachika

bharat mean lokahit athava janahit yachika (vad) ko prarambh karane ka shrey nyayamoorti pi. en. bhagavati aur nyayamoorti vi. ar. krishna ayyar ka raha hai. isake prayog ki shuruat 1970 ke uttarardh se huee thi. janahit yachika mean jivan ki moolabhoot avashyakataean, shoshan, paryavaran, balashram, striyoan ka shoshan adi vishayoan par nyayalay ko kisi bhi vyakti ya sanstha dvara soochit karane par nyayalay svayan usaki jaanch karakar ya vastusthiti ko dekhakar janahit mean nirnay deta hai. is prakar ke vad uchch nyayalay tatha sarvochch nyayalay mean hi prastut kiye ja sakate haian. nichali adalatoan ko aise vadoan par vichar karane ka adhikar prapt nahian hai.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

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