अंग्रेजी साहित्य

aangreji sahity ke prachin evan arvachin kal kee ayamoan mean vibhakt kie ja sakate haian. yah vibhajan keval adhyayan ki suvidha ke lie kiya jata hai; isase aangreji sahity pravah ko akshunnata par koee prabhav nahian p dana chahie. prachin yug ke aangreji sahity ke tin spasht ayam hai: aianglo-saiksan; narman vijay se ch aausar tak; ch aausar se punarjagaran kal tak.

aianglo-saiksan

ianglaiand mean basane ke samay aianglo-saiksan kabile barbarata aur sabhyata ke bich ki sthiti mean the. akhet, samudr aur yuddh ke atirikt unhe krishi jivan ka bhi anubhav tha. apane sath ve apane viroan ki kathaean bhi lete ae. tyootan jati ke sare kabiloan mean ye kathaean samany roop se prachalit thian. ve deshoan ki simaoan mean nahian bandhi thian. inhian bhashaoan se satavian shatabdi mean kavita ke roop mean aangreji sahity ka praranbh hua. isalie dablyoo.pi. kar ke shabdoan mean aianglo-saiksan sahity purani duniya ka sahity hai. lekin is samay tak aianglo-saiksan log eesaee ban chuke the. in bhashaoan ke rachayita bhi am taur se purohit hua karate the. isalie in bhashaoan mean varnit shaury aur parakram par dharmik rahasy, vinay, karuna, seva ityadi ke bhav bhi aropit hue. aianglo-saiksan kavita ka shuddh dharmavishayak aansh bhi in gathaoan ke roop se prabhavit hai

in gathaoan mean shaury ke sath shaili ka bhi atiranjan hai. aianglo-saiksan bhasha kaphi anagadh thi. gathaoan mean kavi use atyant kritrim bana dete the. chhand ke anuprasik adhar ke karan bharati ke shabdoan ka a jana anivary tha. mukhar vyanjanoan ki prachurata se sangit ya lay mean kathorata hai. vishayoan aur shaili ko sankirnanta ke bich aangreji kavita ka vikas asanbhav tha. narman vijay ke bad isaka aisa kayakalp hua ki anek vidvanoan ne isamean aur bad ki kavita mean vanshagat sanbandh jo dana anuchit kaha hai.

doosari or aangreji gady mean, jisaka uday kavita ke bad hua, vikas ki kramik aur atoot paranpara hai. eesaee sansar ki bhasha latini thi aur is kal ka prasiddh gady lekhak bid isi bhasha mean likhata tha. aianglo-saiksan mean gady ka praranbh alaphred ke jamane mean latini ke anuvadoan tatha upadeshoan aur vartaoan ki rachana se hua. gady ki rachana shiksha aur jnan ke lie huee thi. isalie isamean aianglo-saiksan kavita ki kritrimata aur any shailigat dosh nahian haian. unaki bhasha lokabhasha ke adhik samip thi. aianglo-saiksan kavita ki tarah bad vale yugoan mean usaka sanbandh vichchhed karana asanbhav hai. lekin is yug ke poore sahity mean lality ka abhav hai

narman vijay se ch aausar tak

ch aausar poorv madhyadeshiy aangreji kal n keval ianglaiand mean hi balki yoorop ke any deshoan mean bhi phraans ke sahityik netritv ka kal hai. 12vian se lekar 14vian shatabdi tak phraans ne in deshoan ko vichar, sanskriti, kalpana, kathaean aur kavita ke roop die. dharmayuddhoan ke is yug mean sare eesaee deshoan ko bauddhik ekata sthapit huee. yah samanti vyavastha tata shaury aur audary ki keandriy manyataoan ke vikas ka yug hai. nari ke prati prem aur poojabhav, sahas aur parakram, dharm ke lie pranotsarg, asahayoan ke prati karuna, vinay adi eesaee naitoan (sooramaoan) ke jivan ke abhinn aang mane ge. isi samay phraans ke charanoan ne prachinakalin parakram gathaoan (chanson dageste) aur prem gitoan ki rachana ki, tatha latini, tyootanoan, kelti, ayari, karni aur phreanch gathaoan ka vyapak upayog hua. phraans ki gathaoan mean karm ki, briten ki gathaoan mean bhavukata aur shrriangar ki or latini gathaoan mean in sabhi tatvoan ki pradhanata thi. sahity mean komalata, madhury aur gitoan par jor diya jane laga.

is yug mean aangreji bhasha ne apana roop sanvara. usamean romaans bhashaoan, visheshat; phreanch ke shabd ae, usane kavita mean karnakatu anuprasik chhand rachana ki jagah turkoan ko apanaya, usake vishay vyapak hue-sankshep mean, usane ch aausar yug ki poorvapithika taiyar ki.

gady ke lie bhasha ke manje-manjae aur sthir roop ki avashyakata hoti hai. purani aangreji ke roop mean vighatan ke karan is yug ka gady purane gady jaisa santulit aur svasth nahian hai. lekin roopagat asthirata ke bavajood is yug ke dharmik aur romani gady mean vicharoan ki drishti se aianglo-saiksan gady ki paranpara ko vikasit kiya.

ch aausar se punarjagaran tak

ch aausar ne is yug ki kavy paranpara ko adhunik yug se samanvit kiya. usane phreanch kavita se lality aur itali ki samakalin kavita se adhunik bodh’ liya. kavita mean yatharthavad ko janm dekar usane aangreji kavita ko yoorop ki kavita se bhi age kar diya. isalie use samajhane ke lie purani aianglo-saiksan duniya aur usaki kavita ki jagah madhyayugin phraans aur adhunik itali ki sahityik halachal ko jan lena jaroori hai. usake bad aur elijabeth yug se pahale koee b da kavi nahian hua.

is yug mean latini aur phreanch sahity ke anuvadoan aur maulik rachanaoan ke madhyam se gady ka roop nikhar chala. lekhakoan ne latini aur phreanch gady ki vaky rachana aur lay ko aangreji roop mean utara. 1350 mean aangreji ko rajabhasha ka samman mila aur dharm ke ghere ko to dakar gady ka roop am logoan ki or hua. gady ne vijnan, darshan, dharm, itihas, rajaniti, katha aur yatra varnan ke dvara vividhata prapt ki. 15vian shatabdi ke aant tak ate-ate maiandevil, ch aausar, vikaliph, pharteskyoo, kaikstan aur mailori jaise prasiddh gady nirmataoan ne aangreji gady ki nianv majaboot bana di.

15vian shatabdi

aangreji natak ka shaishav kal hai. dharmopadesh aur sadachar shiksha ki avashyakata, nagaroan ke vikas aur shaktishali shreniyoan (shild) ke uday ke sath natak girajaghar ke prachiroan se nikalakar janapath par a kh da hua. in natakoan ka sanbandh baibil ki kathaoan (mistriz), kumari meri aur santoan ki jivaniyoan (miraikils), sadachar (morailitiz) aur manoranjak prahasanoan (iantaralyoods) se hai. dharm ke sankuchit kshetr mean rahane vale aur roop mean anagadh in natakoan ko elizabeth yug ke mahan natakoan ka poorvaj kaha ja sakata hai.

punarjagaran

vicharoan aur kalpana ke aviram manthan, vidhaoan mean prayogoan ki vividhata aur krititv ki praudhata ki drishti se punarjagaran kal aangreji sahity ka svarn yug hai. saanskritik drishti se yah yug adhi bhautikata ke viruddh bhautikata, madhyayugin samanti aankushoan ke viruddh mananashil vyaktivad, aandhavishvas ke viruddh vijnan ke sangharsh ka yug hai. punarjagaran ne ianglaiand ko itali, phraans, spen aur jarmani ke kaphi bad aandolit kiya. 1500 se 1580 tak ka samay manavatavad ke vikas aur prachin yoonan tatha itali ke sahityik adarshoan ko atmasat karane ka hai. lekin 1580 aur 1660 ke bich kavita, natak aur gady mean adbhut utkarsh hua. 1580 ke poorv mahan vyaktitv keval ch aausar ka hai. 1580 ke bad speansar, sheksapiyar, bekan aur miltan ki mahan pratibhaoan se kuchh hi niche star par natak mean marlo, ben j aaunsan aur bebstar, gady mean hookar, barten aur t aaumas braun, kavita mean ben j aaunsan aur dan haian. shaili aur vastu mean chitr-vichitrata ki drishti se natakoan mean lili, pil aur grin ki ‘darabari kamedi’, sheksapiyar ki ‘romani kamedi’, bomaant aur phlechar ki ‘traiji kamedi’ aur ben j aaunsan ki ‘yatharthavadi kamedi’, kavita mean anek kaviyoan ke prem sanbandhoan kathabaddh s aaunet, speansar ki romani kavita, dan aur any adhyatmik (metaphijikal) kaviyoan ki durooh kalpanapoorn kavitaean, ben j aaunsan aur darabari kaviyoan ke praanjal git tatha miltan ke bhavy aur udatt mahakavy, gady mean itali aur spen se prabhavit lilo aur sidani ko alankrit shaili ki romani kathaean tatha naish aur deloni ke sahasikatapoorn yatharthavadi upanyas, bekan ke nibandh (ese), baibil ka mahan anuvad, bartan ka manovaijnanik, sookshm kiantu suhrid sa aantarang gady, sidani aur ben j aaunsan ki gady alochanaean, miltan ka ojapoorn aur akroshapoorn pralanbit vakyoan ka bhavy gady, t aaumas braun ka chiantanapoorn kiantu sangit taral gady is yug ki ullekhaniy upalabdhiyaan haian. manav buddhi aur kalpana ki tarah hi yah yug abhivyakti ke mahatvakaankshi prasar ka yug hai.

1660 aur 1700 ee. ke aant ke bich vale varsh buddhivad ke aankuran ke haian. parantu punarjagaran ka prabhav shesh rahata hai; usake aantim aur mahan kavi miltan ke mahakavy 1660 ke bad hi likhe ge; svayan draidan mean manavatavadi pravrittiyaan haian. lekin ek naya mo d samane hai. buddhivad ke atirikt yah charls dvitiy ke punarrajyarohan ke bad phreanch ritivad ke uday ka yug hai. phreanch ritivad tatha ‘prem aur samman’ (lav aiand aaunar) ke darabari moolyoan se prabhavit is yug ka natak anubhooti aur abhivyakti mean nirjiv hai. doosari or madhyavargiy yatharthavad se prabhavit vikarli aur kaangrov ke samajik prahasan apani sajivata, parishkrit kiantu paini bhasha aur tikhe vyangy mean advitiy hai. ooanche madhyavarg ke yaantrik buddhivad aur anaitikata ke virooddh nimn madhyavargiy naitikata aur adarsh ka pratik j aaun vanyan ka roopak upanyas ‘di pilgrims proses’ hai. alochana mean ritivad ka prabhav sheksapiyar ke romani natakoan ke virooddh raimar ki alochana se spasht hai. us yug ki sabase mahatvapoorn alochanakriti manavatavadi svatantrata aur ritivad ke samanvay par adharit draidan ka natak-kavy-sanbandhi nibandh hai. varnan mean yatharthavadi gady ke vikas mean saimuel pepiz ki dayari ki bhoomika bhi smaraniy hai. sankshep mean, 17vian shatabdi ke in aantim varshoan ke gady aur pady mean svachchhata aur santulan hai, lekin kul milakar yah mahatta-viral-yug hai.

18vian shatabdi

ritivadi yug yah shatabdi tark aur riti ka utkarshakal hai. layabaniz, dakart aur nyootan ne kary karan ki paddhati dvara tarkavad aur yaantrik bhautikavad ka vikas kiya tha. unake anusar srishti aur manushy niyamanushasit the. is drishtikon mean vyaktigat ruchi ke pradarshan ke lie kam jagah thi. is yug par havi phraianch ritikaroan ne bhi sahityik prakriya ko ritibaddh kar diya tha.

is yug ne dharm ki jagah rakha aur manushy ke sadharan samajik jivan, rajaniti, vyavaharik naitikata ityadi par jor diya. isalie isaka sahity kam ki bat ka sahity hai. is yug ne bat ko saph-suthare, sidhe, nape-tule, paine shabdoan mean kahana adhik pasand kiya. kavita mean yah pop aur prayar ke vyangy ka yug hai.

tark ki pradhanata ke karan 18vian shatabdi ko gadyayug kaha jata hai. sachamuch yah adhunik gady ke vikas ka yug hai. dalagat sangharshoan, k aauphihausoan aur klaboan mean apani shakti ke prati jagarook madhyavarg ki naitikata ne is yug mean patrakarita ko janm diya. sahity aur patrakarita ke samanvay mean edisan, stil, dipho, svipht, phildiang, smalet, j aaunasan aur goldasmith ki shaili ka nirman kiya. isase kavita ke vyamoh se mukt, rachana ke niyamoan mean dridh, batachit ki atmiyata lie hue chhote-chhote vakyoan ke pravahamay gady ka janm hua. jahar mean bujhe tir ki tarah svipht ke gady ko chho dakar adhikaansh lekhakoan mean vyangy ki udar shaili hai.

alochana mean pahali bar ch aausar, speansar, sheksapiyar, miltan ityadi ko vivek ki kasauti par kasa gaya. riti aur tark ki paddhati romaiantik sahityakaroan ke prati anudar ho jaya karati thi, lekin aj bhi edisan, pop aur j aaunsan ki alochanaoan ka mahatv hai. gady mean shaili ki anekaroopata ki drishti se is yug ne lalit patralekhan mean chestaraphild aur valapol, sansmaranoan mean giban, phaini barni aur b aauzavel, itihas mean giban, darshan mean barkale aur hyoom, rajaniti mean bark aur dharm mean batalar jaise shailikar paida hue

yatharthavadi drishtikon ke vikas ne adhunik aangreji upanyasoan ki char prasiddh dhuriyaan dian dipho, richardh‌san, pholdiang aur sm aaulet. upanyas mean yahi yug svipht, starn aur goldasmith ka bhi hai. aangreji katha sahity ko yatharthavad ne hi, goldasmith aur sheridan ke madhyam se, kritrim bhavukata ke daladal se ubara. kiantu yah yug madhyavargiy bhavuk naitikata se bhi achhoota n tha. isake spasht lakshan bhavuk kamedi aur starn, richardh‌san ityadi ke upanyasoan mean maujood hai. shatabdi ke aantim varshoan mean romaiantik kavita ki jamin taiyar thi. blek aur barns is yug ki sthirata mean aandhi ki tarah ae.

19vian shatabdi

romaiantik yug punarjagaran ke bad romaiantik yug mean phir vyakti ki atma ka unmeshapoorn aur ullasit svar sun p data hai. pray: romaiantik sahity ko ritiyug (klasisizm) ki pratikriya kaha jata hai aur usaki visheshataoan ka is prakar ullekh kiya jata hai- tark ki jagah sahaj gitimay anubhooti aur kalpana; abhivyakti mean sadharanikaran ki jagah vyakti nishthata; nagaroan ke kritrim jivan se prakriti aur ekaant ki or mu dana; sthoolata ki jagah sookshm adarsh aur svapn; madhyayug aur prachin itihas ka akarshan; manushy mean astha; lalit bhasha ki jagah sadharan bhasha ka prayog; ityadi. nishchay hi inamean se anek tatv romani kaviyoan mean milate haian, lekin unaki mahanh‌ saanskritik bhoomika ko samajhane ke lie avashyak hai ki 19vian shatabdi mean jarmani, phraans, spen, itali, ianglaiand, roos aur polaiand mean janavadi vicharoan ke ubhar ko dhyan mean rakha jae. is ubhar ne samajik aur sahityik roodhiyoan ke viruddh vyakti svatanthhray ka nara lagaya. roosi aur phraansisi kraanti usaki keandriy prerana the. ianglaiand mean 19vian shatabdi ke poorvardh ke kavi-- vardh‌svarth, kolarij, sheli, kits, aur bayaran-- isi ne unmesh ke kavi haian. laianb, hant aur haizalit ke nibandhoan, kits ke premapatroan, sk aaut ke upanyasoan, di kviansi ke ‘kanpheshans aauv ain opiyam’ eetar mean gady ki bhi anubhooti, kalpana aur abhivyakti ka vahi ullas prapt hua. alochana mean kolarij, laianb, haizalit aur di kviansi ne riti se mukt hokar sheksapiyar aur usake charitroan ki atma ka udghatan kiya. lekin vyaktitv aropit karane ke svabhav ne natak ke vikas mean badha pahuanchaee.

viktoriya ke yug mean jahaan ek or janavadi vicharoan aur vijnan ka atoot vikas ho raha tha, vahaan abhijat varg kraantibhiru bhi ho utha. isalie is yug mean kuchh sahityakaroan mean yadi svasth samajik chetana hai to kuchh mean nirasha, sanshay, anastha, samanvay, kalavad, vayavi ashavad ki pravrittiyaan bhi haian. vyaktivad shatabdi ke aantim dashak tak pahuanchate-pahuanchate kaithalik dharm, rahasyavad, atmarati ya atmapi dan mean is tarah lipt ho gaya ki is dashak ko khal dashak bhi kahate haian. janavadi, yatharthavadi aur vaijnanik vicharadhara ka pratinidhitv m aauris ne kavita mean, raskin ne gady mean aur braante bahanoan, thaikare, dikens, kiangsali, rid, j aaurj iliyat, t aaumas hardi, batalar adi ne upanyas mean kiya. nirasha aur pi da ke bich mean inamean manav ke prati gahari sahanubhooti aur vishvas hai. shatabdi ke aantim varshoan mean viktoriya yug ke rikt adarshoan ke viruddh anek svar uthane lage the.

20vian shatabdi

19vian shatabdi ke aantim varshoan mean madhyavargiy vyaktivad ke ubharate hue aantarvirodh 20vian shatabdi mean sankat ki sthiti mean pahuanch ge. yah is shatabdi ke sahity ka keandriy tathy hai. is shatabdi ke sahity ko samajhane ke lie usake vicharoan, bhavoan aur roopoan ko prabhavit karane vali shaktiyoan ko dhyan mean rakhana avashyak hai. ve shaktiyaan haian nitshe, sh aaupenavar, spinoza, karkagard, phrayad aur marks; ibsan, chekhav, phreanch abhivyanjanavadi aur pratikavadi, gorki, sartr aur iliyat; do ho chuke yuddh aur tisare ki ashanka, phasijm, roos ki samajavadi kraanti, ge deshoan mean samajavad ki sthapana aur paradhin deshoan ke svatanthhray sangram; prakriti par vijnan ki vijay se samajik vikas ki amit sanbhavanaean aur unake sath vyakti ki sangati ki samasya.

20vian shatabdi mean vyaktivadi adarsh ka vighatan teji se hua hai. sha, vels aur garlsavardi ne shatabdi ke praranbh mean viktoriya yug ke vyaktivadi adarshoan ke prati sandeh prakat kiya aur samajik samadhanoan par jor diya. hardi ki kavita mean bhi usake vighatan ka chitr hai. lekin kisi tarah pahale yuddh ke pahale kavita ne viktoriya yug ke paistaral adarshoan ko jivit rakha. jo yuddhoan mean vyaktivad samaj se bilkul tootakar ah‌lag ho gaya. apani hi simaoan mean sankuchit sahityik ne prayogoan ka sahara liya. ti.es. iliyat ke ‘vestalaiand’mean vyakti ki kuantha aur dikshagamy kavita ka janm hua aur aj bhi vyaktivad se prabhavit aangreji kavi usaka netritv svikar karate haian. 1930 ke bad marksavadi vicharadhara aur spen ke grihayuddh ne aangreji kavita ki nee sphoorti di. lekin doosare yuddh ke bad tivr samajik sangharshoan ke bich is kal ke anek kavi phir vyaktivadi pravritti ke upasak ho ge. sath hi, aise kaviyoan ka bhi uday hua jo apani vyaktigat manasik ulajhanoan ke bavajood yug ki manav astha ko vyakt karate rahe.

adarshavad ke tootane ke sath hi upanyasoan mean vyakti ki manasik gutthiyoan, visheshat: yaun kuanthaoan ke viruddh bhi avaj uthi. l aaureans, jems, jv aauyas aur varjiniya vulph isi dhara ki pratinidhi haian. natakoan ke kshetr mean bhi yatharthavadi pravrittiyoan ka vikas hua hai. natakoan mean kavy aur romani kraantikari vicharoan ko vyakt karane mean sabase adhik saphalata aangreji mean likhane vale ayaralaiand ke natakakaroan ko mili hai. alochana mean shodh se lekar vyakhya tak ka bahut b da kary hua. prayogavadi sahityakaroan ke pradhan shikshak ti.es. iliyat, richarrdh‌s, empasan aur livis hai. inhoanne jivan ke moolyoan se adhik mahatv kavita ki rachana prakriya ko diya hai. sadharanat: kaha ja sakata hai ki 20vian shatabdi ke sahity mean vicharoan ki drishti se chianta, bhay aur dishahinata ki aur roop ki drishti se vighatan ki pradhanata hai. usamean svasth tatv bhi hai aur unhian par usaka age ka vikas nirbhar hai.

gady

aangreji gady ne aangreji kavita, natak aur upanyas ke saman hi aangreji sahity ko samriddh kiya hai. baibil ke anek vaky aangreji rashtr ke manas par sada ke lie gahare aankit ho ge haian. isi prakar sheksapiyar, miltan, giban, j aaunsan, nyoomain, karlail aur raskin ke vaky aangrej jati ko smriti mean gooanjate haian. aangreji gady anek sahityik vidhaoan dvara samriddh hua hai. inamean upanyas, kahani aur natak ke atirikt nibandh, jivani, atmakatha, alochana, itihas, darshan aur vijnan bhi sammilit haian.

aangreji gady ka sangit anek shatabdiyoan se pathakoan ko mohata raha hai. yah sangit bahudha romaansavadi aur bhavana pradhan raha hai. is gady mean kavy ka gun prachur matra mean milata hai. aangreji gady ki tulana mean phreanch gady ki gati adhik santulit aur sanyat rahi hai. ek alochak ka kahana hai ki kavita bhavana ko bhasha deti hai, kiantu gady vivek aur buddhi ki vani hai.

aangreji gady aianglo-saiksan sahity ki paranpara ka hi vikas hai. madhy yug ke bid (672-735) aangreji gady ke pitamah kahe ja sakate haian. bid ki ‘ekseziestikal histri’ jooliyas sizar ke akraman se lekar 735 ee. tak ke ianglaiand ka pray: ath sau varshoan ka itihas prastut karati hai. aangreji gady ka sarvapratham mahatvapoorn granth sar j aaun meandevil ki yatraean haian. yatra varnan ke roop mean yah pustak vastav mean kalpanik gatha hai. sanh‌ 1377 mean mool phraansisi se anoodit hokar yah aangreji mean prakashit huee. aangreji kavita ke janak ch aausar (1340-1400) ka gady sahity bhi pariman mean kaphi hai. unaki kaitarabari tels mean do kahaniyaan gady mean likhi hai.

aangreji gady ko vikliph (1324-1384) ki rachanaoan se bahut prerana mili. vikliph aandhavishvasoan par kathor aghat karata hai. usane sarvapratham baibil ka sanh‌ 1611 ka vikhyat sanskaran taiyar hua. vikliph dharm ke kshetr mean svatantr vicharak tha. usake gady mean b di shakti hai.

15vian shatabdi tak ianglaiand ke lekhak latini gady mean hi likhana pasand karate the aur shakti tatha pratibha se sanpann kam gady aangreji mean likha gaya. aise lekhakoan mean sar j aaun ph aaurteskyoo (1394-1476) ka nam ullekhaniy hai. inhoanne aangreji vidhan ki prashansa mean ek pustak ‘di gavarnens aauv ianglaiand’ likhi. aangreji gady ke itihas mean kaikstan (1421-91) ka nam vishesh mahatvapoorn hai. unhoanne 1476 mean mudran kary aranbh kiya aur aangreji gady ko sthaniy boliyoan ke prabhav se mukt karake ek nishchit roop dene mean b di madad ki. kaikstan ne madhy yug ke anek romaans aangreji gady mean anuvad karake prakashit kie. unhoanne phreanch gady ko apana adarsh banaya aur aangreji gady ke vikas mean b da hissa liya. kaikstan ke mahatvapoorn prakashanoan mean sar t aaumas mailori ka ‘mart d arthar’bhi tha. mailoli ki pustak aangreji gady ke itihas mean ek smaraniy mil stanbh hai.

aangreji punarjagaran ke pahale b de lekhak sar t aaumas mor (1478-1535) hai. unaki pustak yutopiya vishvavikhyat hai, kiantu durbhagy se is pustak ko unhoanne latini mean likha. aangreji mean unaki keval kuchh mamooli rachanaean haian. unhian ke bad iliyat, chik, eskam aur vilsan ne apani shiksha sanbandhi pustakean likhian.

viliyam tiandel (1484-1536) ne sanh‌ 1522 se baibil ka anuvad aangreji mean karana shuroo kiya. is prashansaniy kary ke badale tiandel ko nirvasan aur matyudand mila.

elizabeth ke yug ka gady kavita ke svar ka hi hai. isake udaharan lili (1574-1606) aur sar philip sidani (1554-86) ki rachanaoan mean ho pate haian. lili ki ‘yoophuis’aur sidani ki ‘arkediya’kavy ke gunoan se samanvit rachanaean haian. sidani ki ‘dipheans aauv poeji’aangreji alochanaoan ki pahali mahatvapoorn pustak hai.

aangreji gady ke vikas mean agala kadam grin, l aauj, naish, dailooni adi ke upanyasoan ka prakashan hai. in lekhakoan ne atmakathaean aur anek vivadapoorn pustakean bhi likhian. udaharan ke lie grin ke ‘kanpheshans’ ka ullekh ho sakata hai. ‘obaravari’aur arl nam ke lekhakoan ne charitrik skech likhe, jisaki prerana unhean grik lekhak thiyaphro aaustas se mili.

aangreji gady sahity ka ek mahatvapoorn aansh hamean elizabethakalin natakoan mean milata hai. bhavana ke gahare kshanoan mean sheksapiyar ke patr gady mean bolane lagate haian. grin, j aaunsan, maloan adi ke nam bhi aangreji gady ke itihas mean mahatvapoorn hai.

richard hookar

aangreji gady ke mahanh‌ lekhakoan mean pahala b da nam richard hookar (1554-1600) ka hai. unaki pustak ‘di l aauj aauv eklejiestikal p aauliti’aangreji gady ki unnayak haian. isi samay (1611) baibil ka suprasiddh aangreji anuvad bhi prakashit hua. baibil ki bhasha aangreji gady ke anupam saanchoan mean dhalati hai. vastav mean yah gady kavy ke sangit se anupranit hai. praansis bekan (1561-1626) aangreji nibandh ke janak tatha itihas ke darshan ke ganbhir lekhak the. unaki rachanaoan mean ‘di aidavaansmeant aauv larniang’, ‘di nyoo aitalaiantis’, ‘henari seveanth’, ‘di esez novamh‌ oganim’adi suprasiddh hai. bekan ki bhasha thos, ganbhir aur sootr shaili ki hai.

richard bartan

richard bartan (1576-1640) ki pustak ‘di enat aaumi aauv melaikali’aangreji gady ke itihas mean ek vikhyat rachana hai. isaka padity apoorv hai aur ek gahari udasi pustak bhar mean chhaee rahati hai. is yug ke ek mahanh‌ gady lekhak ‘sar t aaumas braun’(1605-82) hai. inake gady ka sangit pathakoan ko shatabdiyoan se mugdh karata raha hai. inaki mahatvapoorn rachanaoan mean ‘rilijio medisi’aur ‘haidrotaiphiya’ullekhaniy hai. jairemi telar (1613-77) prasiddh dharm shikshak aur vakta the. unaki upamaean bahut suandar hoti thian, unaka gady kalpana aur bhavana se anuranjit hai. unaki pustakoan mean ‘holi liviang’aur ‘holi daiang’prasiddh hai.

is kal ke lekhakoan mean miltan ka janm agragany hai. tis se lekar pachas varsh ki ayu tak miltan ne keval gady likha aur tatkalin rajanitik, samajik aur dharmik vivadoan mean jamakar bhag liya. apani prasiddh pustak ‘eropajitika’mean ve vicharoan ki abhivyakti ki svatantrata ke prashn ko ooanche dharatal par uthate haian aur aj bhi unake vicharoan mean saty ki gooanj hai. miltan ke gady mean shakti aur oj ka adbhut sanyog hai. 17vian shatabdi ke gady lekhakoan mean any ullekhaniy nam phular (1608-61) aur valtan (1593-1683) ke haian. phular dharmik vishayoan par likhate the. unaki pustak, ‘di bardij aauv ianglaiand’prasiddh hai. valtan ki pustak, ‘di kanplit aianglar’aangreji sahity ki amar rachanaoan mean se hai.

draidan

draidan (1631-1700) aangreji ke pramukh gadyakaroan mean the. unaki alochana shaili sulajhi huee aur suvyavasthit thi. unaki gady shaili bhi phreanch paranpara ke nikat hai. vah chiantan ko sahaj aur tarkasangat abhivyakti dete haian. draidan ki bhoomikaoan ke atirikt unaki pustak, ‘ese aauv draimetik poezi’suprasiddh hai. h aaubs (1588-1679) ke rajanitik vicharoan ka aitihasik mahatv hai aur unaki pustak ‘di levayathan’aangreji bhasha ki ek suprasiddh rachana hai. pepiz (1632-1704) aur evalin (1632-1706) ki dayariyaan aangreji sahity ki nidhi haian. h aaubs ke saman hi l aauk (1623-1704) ke rajanitik vicharoan ka bhi aitihasik mahatv bahut hai.

18vian shatabdi mean aangreji gady jivan ki gati ke sabase adhik nikat aya. isaka karan phreanch sahity ka badhata hua prabhav tha. svift (1667-1745) apani amar kriti ‘gulibarg traivels’mean apane samay ke manaviy vyaparoan par kathor vyang karate haian. unake gady mean b da oj aur bal hai. unaki any prasiddh rachanaoan mean ‘e tel aauv e tab’aur ‘di baitil aauv di buks’bhi ullekhaniy hai. 18vian shatabdi ka sahity uthate hue madhy varg ki bhavanaoan ko vyakt karata hai aur isake gady ki shaili bhi is varg ki avashyakataoan ke anuroop saral aur spasht hai. is yug ke saphal gadyakaroan mean dipho, edisan aur stil haian. dianpho (1660-1731) ka upanyas ‘r aaubinsan kooso’aangreji bhasha ki vishesh lokapriy rachanaoan mean se haian. unake any upanyas ‘m aaul phlaiandars’, ‘e jarnal aauv di pleg eegar’adi yatharthavadi shaili mean dhale haian. edisan (1672-1719) aur stil (1672-1729) mukhyat: nibandhakar hai. unhoanne ‘di taitalar’ aur ‘di spektetar’ nam ke patr nikal kar aangreji sahity mean uchch koti ki patrakarita ki bhi nianv rakhi.

d aau. j aaunsan

aangreji sahity ke itihas mean d aau. j aaunsan (1709-84) ka nam avismaraniy rahega. ve itihasakar, nibandhakar, alochak, kavi aur upanyasakar the. unhoanne ek kosh ki bhi rachana ki. inaki gady kritiyoan mean ‘laivz aauv di poets’, ‘raselas’aur ‘priphesez tu sheksapiyar’ atyant mahatvapoorn hai. j aaunsan ki batachit bhi, jo b aaujavel likhit jivani mean sankalit hai, unake lekhan se kam mahatv ki nahian hoti thi.

18vian shatabdi mean aangreji upanyas ka apoorv vikas hua. is kal ke upanyasakaroan mean goldasmith (1728-1774) bhi the jinhoanne jal ke saman taral gati ka gady likha aur anek suandar nibandhoan ki rachana ki. inaki rachanaoan mean ‘di sitizan aauv di varld’, ‘di vikar aauv bekaphild’adi suvikhyat hai. itihasakaroan mean hayoom, r aaubartasan aur giban ke nam mahatvapoorn hai. giban (1737-1784) aangreji gady ke itihas ke amar haian. shaili aur nirman shakti ki drishti se unaka granth ‘diklain aiand fal aauv di roman empayar’ ek smaraniy kriti hai. isi shreni mean prasiddh vicharak aur vakta vark (1729-1797) ka nam bhi ata hai. unake gady mean b di pravahaman shakti thi. unaki sabase prasiddh pustak ‘riphlekshans aaun di phreanch rivalyooshan’hai.

phraansisi kraanti se prabhavit romaiantik sahity mean moolat: kavita pramukh hai. romaiantik kaviyoan ne apane krititv ke bachav mean bhoomikaean adi likhian. unamean sabase mahatvapoorn vaktavy vard savarth ka ‘priphes tu di lirikal bailads’, kolarij ki ‘bayograiphiya litareriya’aur sheli ki pustak ‘e difeans aauv poetri’hai. romaiantik yug ka gady bhavana aur kalpana se anuranjit hai.

samajashastr aur arthashastr par jeremi beantham, rikardo aur edas smith ne granth likhe. 19vian shatabdi mean ‘edinabara rivyoo’, ‘kvartarli’aur ‘blaikabud’ ke saman patrikaoan ka janm hua jinhoanne gady sahity ke bahumukhi vikas mean madad ki. 19vian shatabdi ke pramukh nibandhakaroan aur alochakoan mean laianb, haizalit, li hant aur di kviansi ke nam agragany hai. laianb (1775-1834) aangreji sahity ke sarvashreshth nibandhakar haian. unake nibandh ‘esez aauv iliya’ke nam se prakashit hue. haizalit (1778-1830) uchch koti ke nibandhakar aur alochak the. di kviansi (1785-1859) ki pustak ‘kanpheshans aauv ain opiyam eetar’ aangreji sahity ka anupam ratn hai.

viktoriya yug ke praranbh se aangreji sahity adhik santulan aur sanyam ki or agrasar hota hai aur gady ki shaili bhi adhik sanyat ho jati hai, yadyapi karlail aur raskin ke se gadyakaroan ki rachana mean ham romaantik shaili ka prabhav phir dekhate haian.

mil

mil (1806-1873) ne anek granth likhakar darshanik gady ko samriddh kiya. itihasakaroan mean maikale (1800-1859) ka gady bahurangi aur sabal tha. unake aitihasik nibandh bahut hi lokapriy haian. sahityalochan ke kshetr mean maithyoo arnald (1822-88) ka kary vishesh mahatv ka hai. arnald ka chiantan suspasht tha aur yahi spashtata unaki gady shaili ki bhi visheshata hai. vicharoan ke kshetr mean bhi daravin, haksale aur harbart spaiansar ki kritiyaan aangreji gady ko mahatvapoorn den hai.

19vian shatabdi ke gadyakaroan mean karlail, nyoomain aur raskin ka ullekh anivary hai. inake lekhan mean hamean aangreji gady ki sarvochch u danean milati haian. karlail (1795-1881) itihasakar aur vicharak the. unake granth ‘di phreanch rivalyooshan, past aiand prezant, hiroz aiand hiro varship’aangreji sahity ke utkrisht namoone haian. unaki atmakatha aangreji gady ka utkrisht roop prastut karati hai. raskin kalatmak aur samajik prashnoan par vichar karate haian. unaki kritiyoan mean ‘m aaudarn peantars’, ‘di sevin laips aauv arkitekchar’, ‘di stons aauv vanis aantoo dis last’, adi vikhyat hai.

sanh‌ 1890 ke lagabhag aangreji sahity ek naya mo d leta hai. is yug ke pitamah petar (1839-94) the. unake shishy aauskar vaild (1856-1900) ne kalavad ke siddhaant ko vikasit kiya. unaka gady suandar aur bh dakila tha aur unake anek vaky avismaraniy hote the. is yug ke lekhak itihas mean hrasavadi kahe jate haian.

janak yets

ayarish gady ke janak yets (1865-1939) the. unaka gady anupam saanchoan mean dhala hai. unake anugami sianj ki den bhi mahatvapoorn hai. natak ke kshetr mean in donoan ka b da mahatv hai. yets uchch koti ke kavi aur chiantak bhi the.

20vian shatabdi yuddh, arthik sankat aur vidrohi vicharadharaoan ki shatabdi hai. vidrohi svaroan mean sabase sashakt svar is yug ke pramukh natakakar barnad sha (1856-1950) ka tha. sha aur vels (1866-1946) donoan ko hi samajavadi kaha gaya hai. inake viparit chestaratan, (1874-1936) aur bel aauk (1870-1953) vaijnanik darshan ke viruddh kh de hue. ve donoan hi uchch koti ke nibandhakar aur alochak the.

adhunik aangreji gady anek dishaoan mean vikasit ho raha hai. upanyas, natak, alochana, nibandh, jivani, vividh sahity, vijnan aur darshan sabhi kshetroan mean ham jagriti aur pragati ke lakshan dekhate haian. litan straichi (1880-1932) ke saman jivani lekhak aur ti.es. iliyat (1888-1965) ke saman alochak aur chiantak aj aangreji gady ko nee tejasvita aur shakti pradan kar rahe haian. aj ke pramukh nibandhakaroan mean e.ji. gardinar, ee.vi. lyookas aur r aaubart liand vishesh ullekhaniy hai. anek kahanikar bhi adhunik agreji gady ko bhara-poora bana rahe haian. aangreji ka adhunik gady suspasht, nirmal aur sugathit hai.

upanyas

aangreji upanyas vishv ke mahanh‌ sahity ka vishisht aang hai. phildiang, jen aaustin, jarj iliyat, meredith, t aaumas hardi, henari jems, j aaun galsavardi aur jems jv aauyas ke saman utkrisht kalakaroan ki kritiyoan ne use samriddh kiya hai. aangreji upanyas jivan par marmabhedi drishti dalata hai, usaki samuchit vyakhya karata hai, samajik anacharoan par kathor aghat karata hai aur jivan ke marm ko grahan karane ka apratim prayas karata hai. aangreji upanyas ne amar patroan ko ek lanbi pankti bhi vishv sahity ko di hai. vah ianglaiand ke samajik itihas ko ek apoorv jhaanki prastut karata hai.

aangreji upanyas ki prerana ke srot madhyakalin aianglo-saiksan romaans the, jinaki adbhut ghatanaoan aur kathaoan ne paravarti kathakaroan ki kalpana ko u dane ke lie pankh die. yah romaans jivan ki vastavikataoan ke atiranjit chitr the aur aleksaandar athava tr aauy adi ke yuddhoan se sanbandh hote the. aise prachin romaans age chalakar gady roop mean bhi prastut hue. inamean sar t aaumas mailari ka ‘maurt d arthar’ (1484) vishesh ullekhaniy hai. gady mean katha kahane ka ianglaiand mean yah pahala prayas tha. aangreji upanyas ke itihas mean isi prakar ki any kritiyaan sar t aaumas mor ki ‘yootopiya’(1516) aur sar philip sidani ki ‘arkediya’(1590) thi.

kuchh itihasakar j aaun lili (1554-1606) ke upanyas ‘yoophuis’(1580) ko pahala aangreji upanyas kahate haian. kis rachana ko pahala aangreji upanyas kaha jay, is sanbandh mean bahut kuchh matabhed sanbhav hai, kiantu aangreji upanyas ke itihas mean yuphuis ka ullekh anayas ho jata hai. is upanyas ki bhasha bahut kuchh kritrim aur alankarik hai tatha aangreji gady ke vikas par is shaili ka bahut prabhav p da tha. aangreji darabari jivan ka is upanyas mean sajiv aur yatharth chitran hai.

elizabeth ke yug mean sheksapiyar ke poorvavarti lekhakoan ne anek upanyas likhe, jinamean se kuchh ne sheksapiyar ko unake natakoan ke kathanak bhi pradan kie. aisi rachanaoan mean r aaubart grin (1562-92) ko ‘paidosto’aur t aaumas l aauj (1558-1625) ki ‘rozeliand’ullekhaniy hai. t aaumas naish (1567-1601) pahale aangreji kathakar the jinhoanne yatharthavad aur vyang ko apanaya. unake upanyas ‘di anpharchunet traivelar aaur di laiph aauv jaik viltan’mean jivan ke bahurangi chitr haian. katha ka nayak viltan desh-videshoan mean ghoomata-phirata hai aur kathanak ghatanaoan ke vichitr jal mean guantha hai. elizabeth yugin lekhakoan mean t aaumas delani (1543-1600) ko bhi upanyasakar kaha gaya hai. unake upanyas ‘jaik aauv nyoovari’mean ek tarun julahe ka varnan hai jo apane svami ki vidhava se vivah karake samriddh jivan bitata hai.

17vian shatabdi mean romaans ka punarutthan hua, aisi kathaoan ka jinaka upahas ‘d aaun kvigzot ’ mean kiya gaya hai. aangreji upanyas ki in rachanaoan ka koee vishesh mahatv nahian hai. aangreji upanyas mean ek mahatvapoorn kadam j aaun banyan (1628-1688) ka upanyas ‘di pilagrims progres’tha. yah katha roopak hai jisamean katha nayak krishchiyan anek badhaoan ka samana karata hua apane lakshy tak pahuanchata hai.

dipho (1661-1731) ki rachanaoan ka aangreji upanyas ke vikas par bahut prabhav p da. unhoanne yatharthavadi shaili ko apanaya, aur jivan ki gati ki bhaanti hi unake upanyasoan ki gati thi. unaka upanyas ‘r aaubinsan krooso’atyant lokapriy hua. isake atirikt bhi unhoanne anek mahatvapoorn rachanaoan ki srishti ki.

svipht (1667-1745) apane upanyas ‘gulivars traivels’mean manav jati par kathor vyang prahar karate haian, yadyapi us vyang ko anadekha karake anek pidhiyoan ke pathakoan ne unaki kathaoan ka ras liya hai.

18vian shatabdi mean ianglaiand mean char upanyasakaroan ne aangreji upanyas ko pragati ka margan dikhaya. richardh‌san (1689-1761) ne apane upanyasoan se madhyam varg ke ne pathakoan ko paritosh pradan kiya. inake tin upanyasoan ke nam haian-‘paimela’, ‘klairisa haloan’aur ‘sar charls graandisan’. richardh‌san ki rachanaean bhavukata se bhari thian aur unaki naitikata sandigdh thi. in trutiyoan ki alochana ke lie phildiang (1707-1754) ne apane upanyas, ‘jojeph aiandryooj’, ‘tam jons’, ‘emiliya’aur ‘jonethan vaild’likhe. in rachanaoan ne aangreji upanyas ko dridh dharatal aur vikas ke lie thos paranpara pradan ki. 18vian shatabdi mean jin char upanyasakaroan ne aangreji upanyas ki vishesh samriddh kiya unamean do any nam sm aaulet (1721-1771) aur starn (1713-1768) ke haian. is shatabdi ka ek aur mahatvapoorn upanyas tha goldasmith (1728-1774) ka ‘di vikar aauv vekaphild’.

sar valtar sk aaut (1771-1832) aur jen mastin (1775-1817) ki kritiyaan aangreji upanyas ki nidhi hai. sk aaut ne aangreji itihas ka kalpanaranjit aur romani chitran apane upanyasoan mean kiya. skatalaiand ke janajivan ka anupam aankan bhi hamean unaki kritiyoan mean milata hai. sk aaut ianglaiand ke sabase saphal aitihasik upanyasakar hai. unaki rachanaoan mean ‘aivanaho’, ‘kenithavarth’aur ‘di tailisman’ki bahut khyati hai. jen astin madhyavargiy nari jivan ki kushal kalakar haian. ve vyang aur nirmamata se patroan ko prastut karati hai. bahy jipan ka itana sajiv aankan sahity mean durlabh hai. jen aaustin ki rachanaoan mean ‘praid aiand prejudis’, ‘ema’aur ‘parsueshan’ ki vishesh khyati hai.

19vian shatabdi ke uttarardh mean aangreji upanyas pragati ke shikhar par pahuancha. yah diphens (1812-1870) aur thaikare (1811-1863) ka yug hai. is yug ke any mahan upanyasakar j aaurj iliyat, j aaurj meredik, trolop, henari jems adi hai. dikens ianglaiand ke sabase adhik lokapriy upanyasakar hai. unhoanne pikavik ke saman amar patroan ki srishti ki jo aangreji ke pathakoan ki smriti mean sada ke lie ghar kar chuke haian. dikens ne apane kal ki kuritiyoan par bhi apane sahity mean kathor prahar kiya. unhoanne bachchoan ki vedana ko apani kritiyoan mean marmik abhivyakti di. kanoon ki ulajhanoan, sarakari daphtaroan kechakr, faiktariyoan mean majadooroan ke kasht adi vishayoan ka bhi dikens ki kritiyoan mean sashakt aankan hai. unake upanyasoan mean ‘pikanik pepars’, ‘aaulivar tvist’, ‘old kyooriaausiti sh aaup’, ‘devid k aauparaphild’, ‘e tel aauv too sitij’, ‘gret eksapekteshans’, adi vishesh mahatvapoorn hai.

dikens ke samakalin thaikare ne apane yug ke mahatvakaankshi aur pakhandi logoan par apani kritiyoan mean kathor prahar kie. thaikare ka sahity pariman mean apekshakrit kam hai, kiantu adhe darjan smaraniy upanyasoan mean unhoanne beki sharp aur bitriks jaise patroan ki viphalata ka marmik aankan kiya. thaiaikare ke upanyasoan mean gahari vedana chhipi hai. sansar unhean ek virath mela pratit hota tha. unake upanyasoan mean ‘vainiti pheyar’, ‘henari esmand’, ‘pendenis’ tatha ‘di nyookams’vishesh mahatvapoorn ke haian.

viktoriya yug mean anek mahatvapoorn kalakaroan ne aangreji upanyas ko samriddh kiya. dizareli (1804-1881) ne rajanitik upanyas likhe, bulabar litan (1803-1873) ne ‘di last dez aauv paanpeee’ke se saphal aitihasik upanyas likhe. charls kiangsali (1891-1875) ne ‘vestavard’ho aur ‘hipaishiya’ke se utkrisht aitihasik upanyas aangreji ko die. isi prakar charls rod (1814-1884), charlet braunte (1816-1855), aimili braunte (1818-1848), misej gaiskel (1810- 1908), vilki k aaulins (1824-1889) adi ke nam aangreji upanyas ke itihas mean smaraniy hai.

jarj iliyat (1819-1880) ki ganana ianglaiand ke mahanh‌ upanyasakaroan mean hai, yadyapi kal ke pravah ne aj unaki kala ka mooly kam kar diya hai. unake vishesh saphal upanyasoan mean ‘sailas marnar’, ‘aidam bid’, ‘di mil aaun di phlas’aur ‘ramola’ke nam haian. aiantanitraulaup (1815-82) ne baraset nam ke kshetr ka aantarang chitran apane upanyasoan mean kiya aur sthaniy rang ka mahatv upanyas sahity mean pratishthit kiya. meredith (1828-1909) ne apane patroan ki manasik ulajhanoan ki vishad vyakhya apane upanyasoan mean prastut ki. inamean ‘igoist’ki bahut khyati huee. manovaijnanik gutthiyoan ko sulajhane ka prayas henari jems (1843-1916) ki kala mean upanyas ko aantarmukhi roop deta hai. t aaumas hardi (1840-1928) vishv ke vidhan par kathor aghat karate haian aur manushy ko jivan shaktiyoan ke asahay shikar ke roop mean prastut karate haian. hardi ne aangreji upanyas ko gadhe kshetriy rang mean bhi ranga. unake upanyasoan mean ‘di ritarn aauv di netiv’, ‘di meyar aauv kaistarabrij’, ‘tes’, aur ‘jyood di absakyor’ mahatvapoorn hai.

adhunik kal mean ek or to manovishleshanavad ka mahatv badha jisake karan aangreji upanyas mean ‘chetana ke pravah’nam ki pravritti ka uday hua. doosari or jivan ke sookshm kiantu vyapak roop ko samajhane ke prayas, ka bhi vikas hua. jems jv aauyas (1882-1942) rachit ‘yoolisiz’upanyas man ke sookshm aur mahan vyaparoan ka adhyayan prastut karata hai. unhian ke saman varjiniya vulph (1882-1941) aur d aaurothi richardh‌san bhi ‘chetana ke pravah’ki shaili ko apanati hai. ech. ji. vels (1866-1946), arnald bainet (1867-1931) aur j aaun galsavardi (1867-1933) ki kritiyaan aangreji upanyas ki adhunik shakti ka anubhav pathak ko karati haian. vels samajik aur vaijnanik samasyaoan ko apani rachanaoan mean uthate haian. arnald bainet yatharthavadi drishti se ianglaiand ke ‘paanch nagar’ shirshak kshetr ka sookshm chitran karate haian. galsavardi ianglaiand ke uchch madhyavargiy jivan ki vyapak jhaanki phorsait nam ke parivar ke madhyam se dete haian. di.ech. l aaurens (1885-1930) aur aldas haksale (1894-1963) aj ke pramukh aangreji upanyasakaroan mean ullekhaniy haian. isi shreni mean ee.em. ph aaurstar (1871-1970), hyoo valapol (1889-1941), je.bi. pristale (1894) aur s aaumaraset m aaum (1874-1958) bhi haian.

kahani

kahani ki j dean hajaroan varsh poorv dharmik gathaoan aur prachin dant kathaoan tak jati hai, kiantu aj ke arth mean kahani ka aranbh kuchh hi samay poorv hua. aangreji sahity mean ch aausar ki kahaniyaan athava julahoan ke jivan se sanbandhit delani ki kahaniyaan pahale bhi milati haian, kiantu vastav mean kahani ki lokapriyata 19vian shatabdi mean badhi. patr-patrikaoan ki sthapana aur adhunik jivan ki bhag-dau d ke sath kahani ka vikas hua. 18vian shatabdi mean nibandh ke sath hamean kahani ke tatv lipate hue milate haian. is prakar ki rachanaoan mean sar r aaujar di kavarli se sanbaddh skech ullekhaniy hai. 19vian shatabdi mean hamean poornat: vikasit kahani milati hai.

kahani jivan ki ek jhaanki matr hamean deti hai. upanyas se sarvatha alag isaka roop hai. kahani ki sabase saphal paribhasha jivan ka ek aansh hai. sk aaut aur dikens ne kahaniyaan likhi thian. dikens ne apana sahityik jivan hi ‘skechej bai bauz’nam ki rachana se shuroo kiya tha, yadyapi inaki vastavik den upanyas ke kshetr mean hai. trolop aur misez gaiskel ne bhi kahaniyaan likhi thian, kiantu kahani ke sarvapratham b de lekhak vashiangatan aravig, h aaurtharn, bret hart aur po amarika mean hamean milate haian. araviang (1783-1859) ki ‘skech buk’apoorv kahaniyoan ka bhaandar hai. inamean sabase saphal ‘rip van viankil’hai. hatharn (1804-64) ki kahaniyaan hamean parilok ke svapn dikhati haian. bret hart (1829-1902) ki kahaniyoan mean amarika ki pashchim ki bastiyoan ke avyavasthit jivan ka digdarshan hai. po (1809-1849) vishv ke sarvashreshth kahani lekhak kahe jate haian. unaki kahaniyaan bhay, atank aur ashchary se pathak ko abhibhoot kar dalati hai.

ianglaiand mean stivensan (1850-1894) ne kahani ki praudhata pradan ki. unaki ‘markheim’, ‘vil o di mil’aur ‘di batal imp’adi kahaniyaan suprasiddh haian. henari jems (1843-1916) upanyasoan ke atirikt kahani likhane mean bhi bahut kushal the. manovaijnanik vishleshan mean unaki saphalata apoorv thi. aianbroz biars (1842-1913) komal aur sanshlisht bhavanaoan ko vyakt karane mean atyant kushal the. kaitharin mainsafild (1889-1923) sukumar kshanoan ka chitran vurush ke halke aghatoan ke saman karati hai.

20vian shatabdi ke sabhi b de upanyasakaroan ne kahani ko apanaya. yah 19vian sadi ki paranpara mean hi ek age badha hua kadam tha. t aaumas hardi ki ‘veseks tels’ke saman ech.ji. vels, k aaunarad, arnald benet, j aaun galsavardi, di.ech. larens, aldas haksle, jems jv aauyas, s aaumaraset m aaum adi ke lie anek saphal kahaniyaan likhian.

ech.ji. vels (1866-1946) vaijnanik vishayoan par kahani likhane mean siddhahast the. unaki ‘storiz aauv taim aiand spes’bahut khyati pa chuki hai. k aaunarad (1856-1924) polaiand nivasi the, kiantu aangreji katha sahity ko unaki adbhut den hai. arnald baienet (1867-1931) paanch kasboan ke kshetriy jivan se sanbandhit kahaniyaan, jaise ‘tels aauv di faiv tauns’ likhate the. j aaun galsavardi (1867-1933) ki kahaniyaan gahari manaviy sanvedana mean doobi haian. unaka kahani sangrah, ‘di kairavan’aangreji mean kahani ke atyant uchch star ka hamean parichay deta hai. di.ech. l aaurens (1885-1930) ki kahaniyoan ka pravah dhima hai aur ve ulajhi manasik gutthiyoan ke adhyayan prastut karati haian. unaka kahani sangrah ‘di vooman hoo rod ave’suprasiddh hai. aldas haksle (1894-1963) apani kahaniyoan mean manushy ke charitr par vyang bhare aghat karate haian. unhean jivan mean mano shraddha ke yogy kuchh bhi nahian milata. jems jv aauyas (1882-1941) apani kahaniyoan ‘dablinars’mean dablin ke nagarik jivan ki yatharthavadi jhaankiyaan pathak ko dete haian. s aaumaraset m aaum (1874-1958) apani kahaniyoan mean british samrajy ke doorasth upaniveshoan ka jivan vyakat karate haian. aj ki aangreji kahani manav charitr ke nikrishtatam roopoan par dhyan keandrit karati hai. isake karan yuddh ka sankat, pashchaty jivan ki vishrriankhalata, aur manaviy moolyoan ka vighatan haian. shilp ki drishti se aj kahani ka paryapt parimarjan ho chuka hai, kiantu sath hi usake bhitar nihit moolyoan ka hhras bhi hua hai.

kavita

prachin kal (650-1350 ee.)–bahut samay tak 14vian sadi ke kavi ch aausar ko hi aangreji kavita ka janak mana jata tha. aangreji kavita ki keandriy paranpara ki drishti se yah dharana sarvatha nirmool bhi nahian hai. lekin vanshanugatikata ke adhar par ab ch aausar ke poorv ki sari kavita ka adhyayan prachinakal ke aantargat kiya jane laga hai.

narman vijay ne ianglaiand ki prachin aianglo-saiksan sanskriti par gahara prabhav dala aur use nee disha di. isalie prachin kal ke bhi do spasht vibhajan kie ja sakate haianudbhav se narman vijay tak (650-1066 ee.), aur narman vijay se ch aausar ke uday tak (1066-1350 ee.) bhasha ki drishti se ham inhean kramash: aianglo-saiksan ya prachin aangreji kal aur praranbhik madhyadeshiy aangreji (midil ianglish) kal bhi kah sakate haian.

prachin aangreji kavita–lagabhag 500 varshoan tak prachin aangreji mean kavitaean likhi jati rahian lekin aj unaka adhikaansh keval char hastalikhit pratiyoan mean prapt hai. us kal ki sari kavita ka jnan inake atirikat do-char aur rachanaoan tak hi simit hai.

aianglo-saiksan kabile tyootan jati ke the jo prakriti aur prakritik devi-devataoan ke poojak the. ve apane sath sahasik jivan aur yuddhoan ke bich paida huee kavita ki maukhik paranpara bhi ianglaiand le ae. chhathi shatabdi ke aantim varshoan mean unhoanne vyapak paimane par itihas ki diksha li. is prakar prachin aangreji kavita saanskritik drishti se barbar sabhyata aur eesaiyat ka sangam hai. ek or ‘vidasith’, ‘valdiyar’, ‘baievulph’, ‘di phait ait finsabarr’, brunabarr aur ‘di baitil aauv mald aaun’ jaisi, parakramapoorn abhiyanoan aur yuddhoan ki gathaoan mean eesaee dharm ki sadashayata, karuna, rahasyatmakata, adhyatmik nirasha aur naitikata ki chhaya hai to doosari or satavian shatabdi ke kaidaman aur athavian navian ke sinulph ki baibil ki kathaoan aur santoan ki jivaniyoan par likhi kavitaoan mean purani vir gathaoan ka roop apanaya gaya hai. upadesh ki pravritti ke karan prachin aangreji kavita mean gitikavy diyors lemeant jaise natakiy gitoan aur ‘di vaandarar’, ‘di sipheyarar’, ‘di gin’, ‘di vaiphoos kanpleant’jaise shok gitoan tak simit haian. ek chhota-sa aansh paheliyoan aur hasyapoorn kathopakathanoan ka bhi hai. prachin aangreji kavitaean atyant alankrit aur asvabhavik bhasha mean likhi gee haian. shabdakri da in kaviyoan ka svabhav hai aur ek-ek shabd ke kee paryay dene mean unhean b da anand ata hai. prachin aangreji kavita mean padmarachana ka adharabhoot siddhaant anupras hai. yah vyanjan mukhar bhasha hai aur vyanjanoan ke anupras par hi panktiyoan ki rachana hoti hai. pratyek pankti ke do bhag hote haian jinamean se pahale mean do aur doosare mean ek nikatatam varnoan mean yah svaraghatapoorn anupras rahata hai. in kavitaoan mean tukoan ka sarvatha abhav hai.

praranbhik madhyadeshiy aangreji kal narman vijay ianglaiand par phraans ki saanskritik vijay bhi thi. isake bad lagabhag 200 varshoan tak phreanch bhasha abhijatoan ki bhasha bani rahi. purani anuprasik kavita ki paranpara lagabhag samapt ho gee. doosare shabdoan mean, yah purani gathaoan par romaniyat ki vijay thi. sath hi anuprasoan ki jagah ab tukoan ne le li. 12vian shatabdi mean is prakar ki nee kavita ka adbhut vikas phraans aur spen mean hua. yah yug islam ke virooddh eesaiyoan ke dharmayuddhoan (kruseandoan) ka tha aur pratyek eesaee saradar apane ki nait (soorama) ke roop mean chitrit dekhana chahata tha. phraans ke vaitalikoan aur charanoan ne gathaoan ka nirman kiya. inake pradhan tatv shaury, prem, eeshvar bhakti, ajnat ke prati akarshan aur kabhi-kabhi kavi ki vyaktigat anubhootiyoan ki abhivyakti the. phraans ke rolaan aur ianglaiand ke arthar ki gathaoan tatha kelti dantakathaoan ke atirikat latini premagathaoan ne bhi is kal ki kavita ko samriddh kiya. is tarah 13vian shatabdi mean laukik aur dharmik donoan tarah ki gitipradhan kavitaoan ke kuchh utkrisht namoone prastut hue. yooropiy sangit, phreanch chhand aur padarachana tatha vaitalikoan aur charanoan ki udatt kalpana ne milakar is yug ki kavita ko sanvara. 12vian aur 13vian sadi ki kuchh prasiddh rachanaoan mean ‘d aul aiand di naitiangel’, ‘aramyulam’, ‘karsar mandai’, ‘haivelak di den’, ‘arthar aiand marlin’, ‘grik aauv kanshans’, ‘dem sirith’, bruut ityadi haian. lekin isamean sandeh nahian ki is yug ki adhikaansh kavita uchch koti ki nahian hai. 14vian sadi ke uttarardh ne pahale pahal ch aausar aur unake atirikat kuchh aur mahatvapoorn kaviyoan ka uday dekha. is prakar madhyadeshiy aangreji (midil ianglish) ka praranbhik kal upalabdhiyoan se adhik prayatnoan ka tha.

ch aausar se punarjagaran tak

ch aausar (1340 ee.? -1400 ee.) ne madhyadeshiy aangreji kavita ke anek tatv grahan kie. lekin usane usake roop aur vastu mean kraanti kar bad ke aangreji kaviyoan ke lie ek nee paranpara sthapit ki. usaki samriddh bhasha aur shaili ko speansar ne ²aangreji ka pavan srot² kaha aur usamean kavy aur jivan ki vividhata ki or sanket karate hue draidan ne kaha ²yahaan par eeshasulabh prachurata hai.²

ch aausar ki kavita ras aur anubhavasiddh udaracheta vyakti ki kavita hai. use darabar, rajaniti, kootaniti, yuddh, dharm, samaj aur itali tatha phraans jaise saanskritik keandroan ka vyapak jnan tha. usane aangreji kavita ko ekaantikata aur sankuchit drishtikon se mukt kiya. madhyayugin yoorop ki samanti sanskriti ke do pramukh romani tatvoan, dakshiny (katasa) aur madhury (gres) ka adarsh phreanch, jarman aur speni bhashaoan mean prastut ho chuka tha. ianglaiand mean ch aausar aur usake samasamayik kavi g aauvar (1330-1408) ne us adarsh ko saman saphalata ke sath aangreji kavita mean pratishthit kiya.

madhyadeshiy aangreji ko phreanch kavita ke udatt bhav aur usaki abhivyakti ki svachchhata, sugharata aur sarasata dene ke karan pray ch aausar ko aangreji mean likhane vala phreanch kavi kaha jata hai. isamean sandeh nahian ki ch aausar ne prasiddh premagatha ¢ di romaans aauvh‌ di roz¢ aur apane poorvavarti ya samakalin phreanch kaviyoan, masho (Machaut), dashaan, (Daschamps) fvasar (Froissart), aur graanjoan (Granson) se bahut kuchh sikha. ¢ di buk aauv dacheans¢ , ¢ di parliyameant aauv phauls¢ , ¢ di haus aauv phaim¢ adi usaki praranbhik rachanaoan aur ¢ di lijeand aauv gud vimen¢ ko prastavana me yah prabhav dekha ja sakata hai. inamean pratik yojana ya roopak (alegari), svapn, adarsh prem, madhu prat, kalaravamagn pakshi ityadi phreanch kavita ki anek visheshataoan ka samavesh hai. ch aausar ki chhand rachana par bhi usaka vyapak prabhav hai.

1372 ee. mean ch aausar ki pratham itali yatra ke bad usaki kavita mean ek aur naya tatv ata hai . daante , petrark aur bokkachcho ne use n keval ne vishay die balki nee drishti bhi di . inamean se aantim kavi ne use sabase adhik prabhavit kiya. bokkachcho se anek kathaean lene ke atirikt ch aausar ne varnan ki nipunata, akarshak chitr yojana aur aveg-poorn abhivyakti ki kala sikhi. usaki prasiddh rachana f trayalas aiand kresidaf par yah naya prabhav spasht hai. lekin ch aausar ki pratibha keval rrinoan par jivit rahane vali nahian thi; usane anek prachin kathaoan ko yatharth aur natakiy charitr-chitran, vinod aur vyangy aur utsahapoorn varnan se atyant sajiv kar diya.

ch aausar ki aantim aur mahan kriti f di kaiantarabari telsaf mean usaki pratibha apani sari shakti ke sath prakat huee. yah rachana usake samaj ka chitr hai aur apane yatharthavad ke karan isane phraans aur itali ki tatkalin kavita ko bahut pichhe chho d diya. is rachana mean ch aausar ne apana sara jnan aur manav jivan ka adhyayan uandel diya. isamean yatharth charitr-chitran aur charitroan ke parasparik saghanrsh dvara ch aausar ne natak aur upanyas ke bhavi vikas ko bhi prabhavit kiya. udar vyangy aur vidroop ki paranpara bhi isi kriti se praranbh huee.

ch aausar mean chhadoan ke prayog ki adbhut kshamata thi. f trayalas aiand kresidaf mean prayukt sat panktiyoan ka f raim rayalaf aur f di kaiantarabari telsaf mean prayukt dashavarni tukaant dvipadi ka vyapak prayog age ki aangreji kavita mean hua.

ch aausar ke samasamayikoan mean g aauvar ka sthan bhi ooancha hai. usaki rachana f kanh.phesiyo amaantisaf ki prem kahaniyoan par naitikata ka gahara put hai. isalie use f sadachari g aauvaraf bhi kaha gaya. usamean ch aausar ki yatharthavadita aur vinodapriyata nahian hai. vah pratibha se adhik svachchh shilp ka kavi hai.

viliyam laiangalaiand 14vian shatabdi ki atyant prasiddh rachana f piyars plaumanaf ka kavi hai. usane aangreji ki sanuprasik shaili ka vyavahar kiya. lekin usaki kavita us yug ke samajik aur dharmik pakhandoan ke virudadh chunauti hai. usamean jivan ke lie dharm aur usaki rahasyabhavana ke mahatv ki sthapana hai. poori rachana roopak hai aur usake arth ke kee star haian. lekin laiangalaiand ne katha ke aanshoan ko saphalata ke sath ekanvit kiya hai. laiangalaiand mean ch aausar aur g aauvar ka madhury nahian, vah akrosh aur oj ka kavi hai.

isi yug mean kuchh aur bhi sanuprasik rachanaean huee jinamean f sar gvain aiand di grin naitaf aur f parlaf vishesh roop se ullekhaniy hai. ye kramash athar ki gatha aur f di romaans aauv di rozaf par adharit hai. pahali mean charitr-chitran ki sookshm drishti aur prakriti ke asadharan roopoan aur sthitiyoan ke prati moh vyakt hota hai aur doosari rachana avasadapoorn komal bhavanaoan aur rahasyanubhooti se ot prot hai.

ch aausar ki mratyu aur punarjagaran ke bich ka samay arthath‌ poori 15vian shatabdi kavita ki drishti se anurvar hai. ch aausar ke anek aur laiangalaiand ke kuchh anuyayi ianglaiand aur sk aautalaiand mean hue. lekin unamean se adhikaansh ki kavita nirjiv hai. akliv, lidaget, h aauj, barkale aur skeltan jaise aangrej anuyayiyoan se kahian adhik shaktishali sk aautalaiand ke anuyayi rabart henarisan, viliyam danabar aur jems pratham the, kyoanki unhoanne apani boli, apani bhoomi ke prakritik sauandary aur anubhootiyoan ki sachchaee ka adhik dhyan rakha. is shatabdi ki mahatvapoorn rachanaoan mean dharm, prem tatha parakram sanbandhi gitoan aur bailadoan ka ullekh kiya ja sakata hai. vyangy aur vinodapoorn kavitaean bhi likhi geean .

punarjagaran yug

madhyayugin sanskriti ke avasheshoan ke bavajood 16vian shatabdi ianglaiand mean punarjagaran ke manavatavad ka utkarsh kal hai. yah manavatavad samanti vyavastha ke dharm, samaj, naitikata aur darshan ke virooddh vyapari pooanjipatiyoan ke ne varg ki vicharadhara thi. isi varg ki prerana se dharm-sudhar-aandolan (ripharmeshan) hua, jyotish aur vijnan mean kraantikari anusandhan hue, dhan aur ne deshoan ki khoj mean sahasik samudrik yatraean hueean. manavatavad ne vyakti ke jnan aur karm ki amit sanbhavanaoan ke sath-sath sahity mean prayogoan aur kalpana ki mukti ki ghoshana ki.

16vian shatabdi

ianglaiand mean itali, phraans, spen aur jarmani ke kaphi bad ane ke karan yahaan ka punarjagaran in deshoan, visheshat itali,se atyadhik prabhavit hua. punarjagaran ke pratham do kaviyoan mean sar t aaumas vayat (1503-42) aur arl aauv sare (1517-47) haian. vayalat ne petrark ke adhar par aangreji mean s aaunet likhe aur itali se anek chhand udhar lie. sare ne s aaunet ke atirikt itali se atukaant chhand liya. in kaviyoan ne prachin yoonani sahity aur petrark ityadi ko paistaral kavita ki roodhiyoan ko aangreji mean atmasath‌ kiya tatha anek suandar aur taral git likhe.

is tarah unhoanne elizabeth ke shasanakal ke anek b de kaviyoan ke lie jamin taiyar ki. inamean sabase pahale edamand speansar (1552-99) aur sar philip sidani ullekhaniy haian. mrityu ke bad prakashit sidani ki rachana f aisatrophel aiand stelaf (1591) ne kathabaddh s aaunet ki paranpara ko janm diya. isake pashchath‌ to aise s aaunetoan ki ek paranpara chal nikali aur deniyal, l aauj, dretan, speansar, sheksapiyar aur any kaviyoan ne ise apanaya. inamean roodhiyoan ke karan vastavik aur kalpanik premi-premikaoan ka bhed karana asan nahian, lekin sidani aur kee any kaviyoan, jaise dretan, speansar aur sheksapiyar ka prem keval vayavi prem nahian hai. sidani ne likha f phoolaf , f sed mai myooj tu mif , faluk in dai hart aiand rait.f

vicharoan mean sanskar tatha charuta aur kavy mean vyapakata aur vividhata ki drishti se speansar ko ianglaiand mean punarjagaran ka pratinidhi kavi kaha ja sakata hai. usane prachin yoonan se lekar adhunik yoorop ki sahityik jagaran se samanvit kiya. udaharan ke lie usaki prasiddh rachana di feyari kvin ka kathanak madhyayugin hai, lekin usaki atma manavatavad ki hai. gopagit (paistaral), marsiya (eleji), vyangy aur vidroop, s aaunet, roopak, premakavy, mahakavy jaise anek roopoan se usane aangreji kavita ki simaoan ka vistar kiya. usane bhasha ko iandriyabodh, sangit aur chitramayata di. chhandoan ke prayog mean bhi vah advitiy hai. isilie use f kaviyoan ka kavif kaha jata hai.

elizabeth ke shasanakal mean giti ki paranpara aur bhi vikasit huee. ek or ovidh ke anukaran par shrriangarapoorn gitoan, jaise marloan ke hiro aiand liyandar aur sheksapiyar ke vinas aiand ad aaunis aur rep aauv lukris ki rachana huee, to doosari or bailadoan aur lokagitoan ki paranpara mean aise gitoan ki jinamean us kal ke anek paksh--yuddh aur prem se lekar tanbakoo tak--pratibianbit hue. in par itali ke sangit ka prabhav spasht hai. aise masti bhare, saral, madhur aur sughar git lili, pil, grin, dekar aur sheksapiyar ke natakoan ke atirikt viliyam bard, t aaumas marloan, t aaumas kaianpiyan, l aauj, rali, bretan, vatsan, naish, dan aur kaanstebil ki rachanaoan mean b di sankhya mean prapt hote haian. in kaviyoan ne aangreji kavita mean f vaitalik pakheruoan ka ghoansalaf banaya.

16vian shatabdi ki mahatvapoorn upalabdhiyoan mean atukaant chhand ka vikas bhi hai. marloan aur sheksapiyar ne aruddhacharanaant vakyoan dvara isamean arkestra ke sangit anuchchhed ki shaili ka vikas kiya. marlo ne yadi ise prapat ka veg aur uchch svarata di to sheksapiyar ne yatiyoan ki vividhata se ise sookshm chiantan se lekar sadharan vartalap tak ki kshamata di. sankshep mean 16vian sadi ke kaviyoan mean atmavishvas ka svar hai. unaki kavita nisarg (f necharaf ) ki tarah niyamabaddh kiantu unmeshapoorn, shabdoan aur chitroan mean udar aur alankrit, sangit, lay aur dhvani mean mukhar, tukoan aur chhandoan mean vyavasthit aur sparsh, roop, ras aur gandh mean prabuddh hai.

17vian sadi poorvardh elizabeth ke bad ka samay dharmik, samajik, rajanitik aur vaijnanik kshetr mean sangharsh aur sanshay ka tha. kavi apane parivesh ki atishay bauddhikata aur anudarata se trast jan p date haian. speansar ke shishy dramand, dainiyal, chaipaman aur grevil bhi isase achhoote nahian haian. is sadi ke poorvardh mean kavita ka netritv ven j aaunsan (1572-1637) aur j aaun dan (1572-1631) ne kiya. unaki kavy dharaoan ko kramash f kaiveliyaraf (darabari) aur f metafizikalaf (adhyatmavadi) kaha jata hai. is vibhajan ke bavajood unamean bauddhikata, kavitaoan aur gitoan ki laghuta, rati aur shrriangar, eeshvar ke prati bhakti aur usase bhay ityadi saman gun haian. elizabeth yug ki kavita ke audary ke sthan par unamean ghanatv hai.

ven j aaunsan ianglaiand ka pratham achary kavi hai. usane kavita ko yoonani aur latini kavyashastr ke saanche mean dhala. usaki kavita mean buddhi aur anubhooti ke sanyam ke anuroop nagarata, rachana santulan aur praanjalata hai. isi pravritti se ben j aaunsan ki santulit, svayatt aur sookti pradhan dashavarni dvipadi (hiroik kapalet) ka janm hua, jo ch aausar ki dvipadi se bilakul bhinn prakar ki hai aur jo 18vian shatabdi ki kavita par chha gee. usake prasiddh atmajoan mean r aaubart herik, t aaumas keri, j aaun sakaliang aur richard lavalas haian. inaki kala aur anubhooti mean bhi moolat vahi adarshavadi aur vyaktivad se paraangamukhi svar hai.

metafizikal kavita ki pravritti vyaktigat anubhav aur abhivyakti ke anveshan ki hai. dan ke shabdoan mean yah f nagn chiantanashil hridayaf ki kavita hai. d aau. j aaunsan ke shabdoan mean isaki visheshataean paraspar virodhi vicharoan aur bianboan ka sayas sanyog aur bauddhik sookshmata, maulikata, vyaktikaran aur dikshagamy jnan haian. lekin adhunik yug ne usaka adhik sahanubhootipoorn moolyaankan karate hue unaki in visheshataoan par adhik jor diya hai- ganbhir chiantan ke sath kataksh aur vyangyapoorn kalpana, vichar aur anubhooti ki anviti, aantarik tanav aur sangharsh, alankrit bianboan ke sthan par anubhooti ya vicharaprasoot marmik bianboan ki yojana aur lalit abhivyakti ke sthan par yatharthavadi abhivyakti.

17vian shatabdi ke kaviyoan mean j aaun miltan (1608-74) ka vyaktitv ooanche shikhar ki tarah hai. usake lie chiantan aur karm, kavi aur nagarik abhinn the. poorvavarti punarjagaran aur paravarti 18vian shatabdi ki rajanitik aur darshanik sthirata se vanchit, sankraanti kal ka kavi hote hue bhi miltan ne manav ke prati asim astha vyakt ki. is tarah ki eesaee manavatavadiyoan mean sabase aantim aur sabase b da kavi hai. madhyayugin aankushoan ke viruddh nee manyataoan ke lie usane kavita ke atirikt keval gady mean lagatar bis varshoan tak sangharsh kiya aur apani aankhean bhi kho dian.

miltan ke anusar kavita ko saral, saras aur avegapoorn hona chahie. apani praranbhik rachanaoan- an di marniang aauv kraists netiviti, l elagro, penseroso, f komasaf aur f lisidasaf mean vah ben j aaunsan aur mukhy roop ke speansar se prabhavit raha, kiantu lanbe viram ke bad likhi huee tin aantim rachanaoan, f pairadaiz l aaustaf , f pairadaiz rigeandaf aur saimsan eganaistiz mean usaki chiantan shakti aur kavy pratibha ka utkarsh hai. apani mahanh‌ kriti f pairadaiz l aaustaf mean usane aangreji kavita ko homar, varjil aur daante ka udatt svar diya. usamean usane aangreji kavita mean pahali bar mahakavy ke lie atukaant chhand ka prayog kiya aur bhasha, lay aur upama ko nee bhangima di.

1660 ee. se lekar shatabdi ke aant tak ki avadhi ka sabase b da kavi j aaun draidan (1631-1700) hai. yah aangreji kavita mean prakhar kalpana aur anubhooti ki jagah kavy shastriy chetana, tark aur vyavahar kushal samajikata ke uday ka yug hai. is ne mo d ke pichhe kam karane vali shaktiyoan mean us yug ke rajanitik daloan ke sangharsh, phraans ke rang mean range hue charls dvitiy ka darabar, phraans ke ne ritikaroan ke adarsh, k aauphi hausoan aur manoranjan grihoan ka uday aur nagarik jivan ka mahatv ityadi haian. svabhavat, is yug ki kavita ka adarsh saral, spasht, santulit, sooktipradhan, phalayukt abhivyakti hai. draidan ki vyangyapoorn kavitaoan- f aibaselam aiand arkitophelaf , f medalaf aur f maikphleknof mean ye gun prachurata se haian. niti ki kavita mean vah advitiy hai. draidan mean gitikavy ki paranpara ke bhi tatv haian. lekin kul milakar usaki kavita buddhivadi yug ki poorvapithika hi hai. draidan ko chho dakar yah yug chhote kaviyoan ka hai jinamean sabase ullekhaniy, prasiddh aur lokapriy vyangyakriti f hudibrajaf ka kavi saimuel batalar hai.

18vian shatabdi tark ya ritipradhan yug

18vian shatabdi apekshakrit rajaniti aur samajik sthirata ka kal hai. isamean ianglaiand ke samrajy, vaibhav aur aantarik suvyavastha ka vistar hua. is yug ke darshanikoan aur vaijnanikoan ke anusar yantr ki tarah niyamit srishti tark aur ganitagamy hai aur dharm ki diist (prakriti devavadi) vicharadhara ke anusar dharm shrutisanmat n hokar naisargik aur buddhigamy hai. sahity mean yah tarkavad riti ke agrah ke roop mean prakat hua. kaviyoan ne apane dhang se yoonan aur rom ke kaviyoan ka anukaran karana anivary samajha. isaka arth tha kavita mean tark, nir-kshir-vivek aur santulit buddhi ki sthapana. kavy mean shuddhata ko unhoanne apana mool mantr banaya. is shuddhata ki abhivyakti vishay vastu mean sarvajaninata (hvat aaupht vaz th aaut bat nevar so bel eksapresd), bhasha mean padalality, chhand mean dashavarni dvipadi mean atyadhik santulan aur yatiyoan mean anushasan ke roop mean huee.

is kavita ka paurohity alekjaiandar pop (1688-1744) ne kiya. usake adarsh rom ke juvenal aur hores, phraans ke bvalo (Boileau) aur ianglaiand ke draidan the. kavy siddhaantoan par likhi huee apani padyarachana ese aaun kritisizm mean usane pratibha aur ruchi tatha in donoan ko anushasit rakhane ki avashyakata batalaee. usaki adhikaansh kritiyaan vyangy aur vidroop pradhan haian aur unamean sabase prasiddh ¢ di rep aauv di l aauk¢ aur ¢ dansiyad¢ haian jinamean usane kritrim udatt (m aauk hiroik) shaili ka anusaran kiya. usake kavyoan ki samata barachhi ki noank se ki jati hai. usaki rachana ¢ ese aaun main¢ manav jivan ke niyamoan ka adhyayan hai. is par usake buddhivadi yug ki chhap spasht hai.

usake yug ke any vyangyakaroan mean prayar, ge, svipht aur paranel haian. is buddhivadi aur vyangyapradhan yug mean hi aaulivar goldasmith, ledi vianchelsiya, jems tamsan, t aaumas gre, viliyam k aaulians, viliyam koopar, edavard yang adi prasiddh kavi hue jinamean se anek ne speansar aur miltan ki paranpara ko kayam rakha aur prakriti, ekaant jivan, bhagnavasheshoan aur samadhi sthaloan ke sanbandh mean avasad aur chiantanapoorn anubhooti ke sath likha. inhean 19vian shatabdi ki romani kavita ka agradoot kaha jata hai. rahasyavadi kavi viliyam blek aur kisan ki kavi r aaubart barns mean bhi pradhan tatv romani pravrittiyaan aur giti haian. in donoan ka svar vidrod aur mukti ka hai.

romaiantik yug

18vian shatabdi ke kuchh kaviyoan mean anek romani tatvoan ke aankuroan ke bavajood romaiantik yug ka praranbh 1798 mean viliyam vardh‌svarth (1770-1850) aur saimuel telar kolarij (1772-1834) ke sanyukt sangrah f lirikal bailadsaf ke prakashan se mana jata hai. aangreji kavita ke is sabase mahanh‌ yug ke sath parsi bishi sheli (1792-1822), j aaun kits (1795-1821), j aaurj g aaurdan bayaran (1788-1824), alaphred tenisan (1809-92), r aaubart brauniang (1812-89) aur maithyoo arnald (1822-88) ke nam bhi ju de hue haian.

poorvardh

19vian sadi ke poorvardh ki kavita us yug ki chetana ki upaj hai aur us par phraansisi darshanik rooso aur phraansisi kraanti ka gahara asar hai. isalie is kavita ki visheshataean manav mean astha, prakriti se prem aur sahaj prerana ke mahatv ki svikriti haian. is yug ne riti ke sthan par vyaktigat pratibha, vishvajaninata ke sthan par vyaktigat ruchi tatha anubhav, tark aur vikalp ke sthan par sankalpatmak kalpana aur svapn, abhivyakti mean spashtata ke sthan par lakshanik vakrata par adhik jor diya. is yug ki kavita mean giti ka svar pradhan hai.

bardh‌svarth prakriti ka kavi hai aur is kshetr mean vah bejo d hai. usane b di saphalata ke sath sadharan bhasha mean sadharan jivan ke chitr prastut kie. prakriti ke prati usaka sarvatmavadi drishtikon aangreji kavita ke lie nee chij hai. usake sathi kolarij ne prakriti ke asadharan pakshoan ka chitr khiancha. vah chiantan pradhan, sanshay aur avasad se bhare man ke divasvapnoan ka kavi hai. sheli manav jivan ki vyatha aur usake ujjval bhavishy ka kraantikari svapnadrashta kavi hai. vah apane sangit aur sookshm kiantu prakhar kalpana ke lie prasiddh hai. kits is yug ka sabase jagarook kavi hai. usamean iandriyabodh ki adbhut kshamata hai. isalie vah sauandary ka kavi mana jata hai aur usake bhav chitroan ke madhyam se vyakt hote haian. bayaran romani kavita ki avasadapoorn aur natakiy atmarati ka kavi hai. is pravritti se ju dakar usake akarshak vidrohi vyaktitv ne yoorop ke anek kaviyoan ko prabhavit kiya. kiantu aj usaki prasiddhi 18vian shatabdi se prabhavit usake vyangyakavy par tiki hai.is kal ke anek ullekhaniy kaviyoan mean r aaubart sadi, t aaumas moor, t aaumas kaianbel, t aaumas hud, saibej laiandar, bedoz, li hant ityadi haian.

viktoriya yug

romaiantik kavita ka uttarardh viktoriya ke shasanakal ke aantargat ata hai. viktoriya ke yug mean madhyavargiy prabhutv ki asangatiyaan ubharane lagi thian aur usaki shoshan vyavastha ke viruddh aandolan bhi hone lage. vaijnanik samajavad ke uday ke atirikt yah kal darvin ke vikasavad ka bhi hai jisane dharm ki bhitean hila dian. in vishamataoan se bachane ke lie hi madhyavargiy upayogitavad, udaratavad aur samanvayavad ka janm hua. samanvayavadi tenisan is yug ka pratinidhi kavi hai. usaki kavita mean atiranjit kalavad hai. brauniang ne ashavad ki sharan li. apani kavita ke anagadhapan mean vah aj ki kavita ke samip hai. arnald aur klaf sanshay aur anasthajany vishad ke kavi haian.

is tarah viktoriya yug ke kaviyoan mean poorvavarti romaiantik kaviyoan ki kraantikari chetana, adamy utsah aur prakhar kalpana nahian milati. is yug mean samay bitane ke sath f kala kala ke lief ka siddhaant jor pak data gaya aur kavi apane-apane ghoansale banane lage. kuchh ne madhyayug tatha kits ke iandriyabodh aur alas sangit ka ashray liya. aise kaviyoan ka dal prirefelait nam se pukara jata hai. unamean pramukh kavi di.ji. rozeti, svinabarn, krishchiyana r aauzeti aur phitzerald haian. viliyam maris (1834-96) ka nam bhi unhian ke sath liya jata hai, kiantu vastav mean vah prithvi par svarg ki kalpana karane vala ianglaiand ka pratham samyavadi kavi hai. dharm ki rahasyavadi kalpana mean palayan karane valoan mean pramukh kaveantri paitamor, elis menel aur jer aaurd mainali h aaupkians (1844-89) haian. h aaupkians atyant pratibhashali kavi hai aur chhand mean f sprang ridmaf ka janmadata hai. meredith (1828-1909) prakriti ka sookshmadarshi kavi hai. shatabdi ke aantim dashak mean hhrasashil pravrittiyaan parakashtha par pahuanch gee. inamean atmarati, atmapi dan aur satahi bhavukata hai. aise kaviyoan mean devidasan, dausan, jems tamsan, saimans, aaustin d aaubsan, henali ityadi ke nam lie ja sakate haian. isi prakar kipaliang ki aandh rashtravadita aur ooanche svaroan ke bavajood 19vian shatabdi ke aantim bhag ki kavita vyaktivad ke sankat ki kavita hai. 20vian shatabdi mean vah sankat aur bhi gahara hota gaya.

20vian shatabdi

20vian shatabdi ka praranbh prashnachihnoan se hua, lekin usaki praranbhik kavita mean, jise j aaurjiyan kavita kahate haian, 19vian shatabdi ke adarshoan ka hi prakshepan hai. j aaurjiyan kavita mean prakritiprem, anubhavoan ki samanyataya aur abhivyakti mean svachchhata aur komalata par adhik jor hai. isilie us par aantarahinata ka akshep kiya jata hai. is shaili ke mahatvapoorn kaviyoan mean r aaubart brijez (1844-1940), mesaphilt (1878) valtar di la meyar, deviz, di.ech. lareans, lareans binyan, h aaujasan, r aaubart ven, rupart bruk, saisoon, edamand blandan, r aaubart grevs, abarakroobi ityadi ullekhaniy haian. nishchay hi,inamean se anek mean vishisht pratibha hai,sabhi uthale bhavoan ke kavi nahian haian.

is shatabdi ke kaviyoan mean yets (1865-1939), hardi (1840-1928) aur hausaman (1851-1936) ka sthan bahut ooancha hai. yets mean rahasy-bhavana, pratik yojana aur sangit ki pradhanata hai. hardi mean svaroan ki rukshata aur niyati ki darun chetana use j aaurjiyan yug se alag karati hai. hausaman hardi ki koti ka kavi nahian, usase milata-julata kavi hai. vah apani rachana f e shr aaupashayar laidaf ke lie prasiddh hai.

adhunikata ke rang mean rangi kavita ka praranbh 1993 mean imejist (bianbavada) aandolan se praranbh hota hai. isake poorv bhi is tarah ki kavitaean likhi gee thian, kiantu 1983 mean eph.es. phliant aur ezara pauand (1885) ne usake siddhaantoan ki sthapana ki. inake anusar kavita ka lakshy tha f vastuf ko kavita mean sidhe utarana, abhivyakti mean adhik se adhik sankshipti aur sangit anushasit vaky rachana. pauand ke anusar ळh bianb vah hai jo bauddhik aur bhavatmak sanshlishtata ko usaki kshanikata mean prastut karata hai.ळh bianbavadi kavita kathor aur paradarshi abhivyakti pasand karati hai. isi ke sath mukt chhand ki lokapriyata bhi badhi. isi shaili ke kaviyoan mean sabase prasiddh ezara pauand aur f edith sitabelaf (1887-1964) haian.

pratham yuddh ke bad ti.es. iliyat (1888-1965) ki prasiddhi rachana f vest laiandaf ne adhunik aangreji kavita par gahara asar dala. is rachana mean pooanjivadi sabhyata ki oosar bhoomi mean pathahin aur pyase vyakti ka chitr hai. isamean kavi ne romani paranpara ko chho dakar dan kavi ka anugaman shuroo kiya. isamean phreanch pratikavadiyoan ka prabhav bhi spasht hai. 1928 ke bad iliyat ke kavy mean dharmik bhavana ka pravesh hota hai to f ais vednesdef se hota hua phor kvartets ke rahasyavadi kavyapuanjoan mean parakashtha par pahuanchata hai. is aantarmukhi kshetr se aangreji kavita ko nikalane ka prayas 1930 ke bad marksavad se prabhavit aanden (1907), livis, speandar, sisal de aur mekanis ne kiya. parantu kalaantar mean unaki kavyadhara bhi aantarmukhi ho gee.

aanden ke bad sabase mahatvapoorn kavi dilan tamas (1914-53) hai jo atyant navin hote hue bhi atyant manaviy hai. usamean yaun pratiko, dharmikata tatha jivan aur mrirityu sanbandhi chiantan ka vichitr yog hai. usaki kavita giti aur bianb pradhan hai aur bahut aanshoan mean usane aangreji kavita ko romani paranpara ka bhi nirvah kiya hai.

20vian shatabdi ke any ullekhaniy kaviyoan mean harbart rid, j aaurj barkar, edavin myor, kez, alan livis, koth dagalas, l aaureans dyoorel, r aauy phular, devid gaisakv aauyan, raidalar, rozars, barnard speansar, teres tilar, d aau. je. enarait, t aaum gan, kiangsale asim, j aaun ven aur alabairiz haian.

adhunik yug ko pashchim ke buddhijivi chianta aur bhay ka yug kahate haian. isamean sandeh nahian ki bhasha, bianb aur chhand mean is yug ne anek prayog kie haian, kiantu aisa jan p data hai ki adhikaansh kaviyoan mean jivan aur usake yatharth ko samajhane ki kshamata nahian hai.

dvitiy mahayuddh ke pashchath‌ aangreji kavita mean parivartan hua hai. aj ke ne kavi poorvavarti kaviyoan ko paandityapoorn evan jatil shaili ko chho dakar kavy mean paranparagat saralata evan chhandabaddh shilp ka samavesh karake dainik jivan sanbandhi kavy ka nirman kar rahe haian. ve prayogavadi kavita ke viruddh haian.

natak

uday-yoonan ki tarah ianglaiand mean bhi natak dharmik karmakaandoan se aankurit hua. madhyayug mean charch (dharm) ki bhasha latini thi aur padariyoan ke upadesh bhi isi bhasha mean hote the. is bhasha se anabhijn sadharan logoan ko baibil aur eesa ke jivan ki kathaean upadeshoan ke sath abhinay ka bhi upayog kar samajhane mean suvidha hoti thi. b de din aur eestar ke parvoan par aise abhinayoan ka vishesh mahatv tha. isase dharmashiksha ke sath manoranjan bhi hota tha. pahale ye abhinay mook hua karate the, lekin navian shatabdi mean latini bhasha mean kathopakathan hone ke bhi praman milate haian. kalaantar mean bich-bich mean lokabhasha ka bhi prayog kiya jane laga. aangreji bhasha 1350 mean rajabhasha ke roop mean svikrit huee. isalie age chalakar keval lokabhasha hi prayukt hone lagi. is prakar aranbh se hi natak ka sanbandh janajivan se tha aur samay ke sath vah aur bhi gahara hota gaya. ye sare abhinay girajagharoan ke bhitar hi hote the aur unamean unase sanbaddh sadhu, padari aur gayak hi bhag se sakate the. natak ke vikas ke lie jaroori tha ki use kuchh khuli hava mile. paristhitiyoan ne isamean usaki sahayata ki.

14vian shatabdi se 16vian shatabdi tak

mistri aur miraikil natakaf vishesh manoranjak hone ke karan in abhinayoan ko dekhane ke lie log girajagharoan ke bhitar um dane lage. vivash hokar charch ke adhikariyoan ne inaka prabandh girajagharoan ke maidanoan mean kiya. lekin s dakoan par ya bajar mean in abhinayoan ke lie anumati n thi. prarthana bhavan se bahar ate hi abhinayoan ka roop badalane laga aur unamean svachchhandata ki pravritti badhane lagi. is svachchhandata ne girajaghar ke bhitar ke abhinayoan ko bhi prabhavit karana aranbh kiya. isalie eesa ke sandeh svargarohan ke drishy ke atirikt prarthana bhavan mean aur abhinay niyam banakar rok die ge. bajaroan mean aur s dakoan par aise abhinay karana f papaf ghoshit kar diya gaya. padariyoan aur charch ke any sevakoan par lage is niyantran ne abhinay ko girajagharoan ki chaharadivariyoan se bahar la kh da kiya. nagaroan ki shreniyoan (gilds) ne is kam ko apane hath mean liya. yahian se mistri aur miraikil natakoan ka uday aur vikas hua.

mistri natakoan mean baibil ki kathaoan se vishay chune jate the aur miraikil natakoan mean santoan kie jivaniyaan hoti thian. phraans mean yah bhed spasht tha, lekin ianglaiand mean donoan mean koee vishesh aantar nahian tha. 14vian shatabdi ke praranbh mean natak mandaliyaan apana saman bailaga diyoan par ladakar abhinay dikhane ke lie desh bhar mean bhraman karane lagian. spasht hai ki aise abhinayoan mean drishyoan ka prabandh nahian ke barabar hota tha. lekin veshabhoosha ka kaphi dhyan rakha jata tha. abhineta pray asthayi hote the aur kuchh samay ke lie apane sthayi kam-dhandhoan se chhutti lekar in natakoan mean abhinay karake puny aur paisa donoan hi kamate the. dhire-dhire janaruchi ko dhyan mean rakhakar ganbhirata ke bich prahasan khand bhi abhinit hone lage. yahi nahian, hajarat nooh ki patni, shaitan aur kroor herod ke charitroan ko hasyatmak dhang se prastut kiya jane laga. vibhinn nagaroan ki natak mandaliyoan ne apani-apani vishishtataean bhi vikasit kian- dharmik shiksha, prahasan, tivr anubhooti aur yatharthavad vibhinn anupatoan mean mishrit kie jane lage. isamean sandeh nahian ki in natakoan mean vishay aur roopagat anek dosh the, lekin aangreji natak ke bhavi vikas ki nianv inhoanne hi rakhi.

morailiti natak

is vikas ka agala kadam tha mistri aur miraikil natakoan ke sthan par morailiti (naitik) natakoan ka uday. ye natak sadachar shiksha ke lie likhe jate the. in natakoan par madhyayugin sahity ke bhavavad aur pratik ya roopak ki shaili ka spasht prabhav hai. inamean upadesh ke atirikt patroan ke nam tak gunoan ya durgunoan se lie jate the, jaise sin (pap), gres (prabhudaya), pheloship (sauhard), envi (eersha), aidilanes (pramad), ripeteans (pashchatap) ityadi. in natakoan ki keandriy kathavastu thi manav (evramain) ka papoan dvara pichha tatha atma aur jnan dvara usaka uddhar. is prakar in natakoan ne manushy ke aantarik sangharshoan ke chitran ki mahatvapoorn paranpara ko janm diya. aise natakoan mean sabase prasiddh f ehvraimainaf hai jisaki rachana 15vian shatabdi ke aant mean huee.

morailiti natak pahale vale natakoan se jyada lanbe hote the aur punarjagaran ke prabhav ke karan unamean se kuchh ka vibhajan seneka ke natakoan ke anukaran par aankoan aur drishyoan mean bhi hota tha. kuchh natak samantoan ki haveliyoan mean khele jane ke lie bhi likhe jate the. inamean se adhikaansh ka abhinay peshevar abhinetaoan dvara hone laga. inamean vyaktigat rachana ke lakshan bhi dikhaee p dane lage.

iantaralyood

praranbh mean morailiti aur iantaralyood natakoan ki vibhajak rekha bahut dhuandhali thi. bahut se morailiti natakoan ko iantaralyood shirshak se prakashit kiya jata tha. kore upadesh se paida huee oob ko door karane ke lie morailiti natakoan mean prahasan ke tatvoan ka bhi samavesh kar diya jata tha. aise hi khandoan ko iantaralyood kahate the. bad mean yo morailiti natakoan se svatantr ho ge. aise natakoan mean sabase prasiddh hevud ka f for pizaf hai. in natakoan mean adhunik bhaand (phars) aur prahasan ke tatv the. inamean se kuchh ne ben j aaunsan ki yatharthavadi k aaumedi ke lie bhi jamin par taiyar ki. prasiddh manavatavadi chiantak sar t aaumas mor ne bhi aise natak likhe.

isi yug mean age ane vali prahasan aur premayukt darabari romaiantik k aaumedi ke tatv medaval ki kritiyoan f phuljeans aiand lookrisaf aur f kailisto aiand melebiyaf mean aur romani pravrittiyoan se sarvatha mukt k aaumedi ke tatv yoodal ki rachana f ralf rh‌vayastar davayastaraf aur mistar es ki rachana f gamar gartas nidilaf mean prakat hue. aitihasik natakoan ka bhi pranayan tabhi hua.

16vian shatabdi ke madhy tak ate ate punarjagaran ke manavatavad ne aangreji natak ko spasht roop se prabhavit karana shuroo kiya. 1581tak seneka aangreji mean anoodit ho gaya. saikavil aur n aaurtan krit aangreji ki pahali traijadi f g aaurabodakaf ka abhinay elizabeth ke samane 1562 mean hua. kamedi par platas aur tereans ka sabase gahara asar p da. latini bhasha ke in natakakaroan ke adhyayan se aangreji natakoan ke rachanavidhan mean paanch aankoan, ghatanaoan ki ikaee aur charitrachitran mean sangatipoorn vikas ka prayog hua.

is vikas ki do dishaean spasht haian. ek or kuchh natakakar deshaj paranpara ke adhar par aise natakoan ki rachana kar rahe the jinamean naitikata, hasy, romaans ityadi ke vividh tatv mile-jule hote the. doosari or latini nathhyashastr ke prabhav mean vidvadvarg ke natakakar k aaumedi aur traijedi mean shuddhatavad ki sthapana ke lie prayatnashil the. aangreji natak ke svarnayug ke pahale hi anek natakakaroan ne in donoan tatvoan ko mila diya aur unhian ke samanvay se sheksapiyar aur usake anek samakalinoan ke mahanh‌ natakoan ki rachana huee.

is svarnayug ki yavanika uthane ke pahale ki taiyari mean ek bat ki kami thi. vah 1576 mean shoradich mean pratham sarvajanik (pablik) rangashala ki sthapana se poori huee. us yug ki prasiddh rangashalaoan mean thietar, roz, glob, pharchun aur sv aaun haian. sarvajanik rangashalaean landan nagar ke bahar hi banaee ja sakati thian. 16vian shatabdi ke aant tak keval ek rangashala blaikaphrayars mean sthit thi aur vah vyaktigat (praivet) kahalati thi. sarvajanik rangashalaoan mean natakoan ka abhinay khule asaman ke niche, din mean, bhinn-bhinn vargoan ke samajikoan dvara ghire hue pray: nagn rangamanch par hota tha. elizabeth aur stuart yug ke natakoan mean varnanatmak aanshoan, kavita ke adhiky, svagat, kabhi-kabhi phooh d majak ya bhan daiti, raktapat, samasamayik put, yatharthavad ityadi tatvoan ko samajhane ke lie in rangashalaoan ki rachana aur unake samajikoan ka dhyan rakhana avashyak hai. vyaktigat rangashalaoan mean rangamanch kaksh ke bhitar hota tha jahaan prakash, drishy adi ka achchha prabandh rahata tha aur usake samajik abhijat hote the. inhoanne bhi 17vian shatabdi mean aangreji natak ke roop ko prabhavit kiya. in rangashalaoan ne natakoan ke lie keval vyapak ruchi hi nahian paida ki balki natakoan ki kathavastu aur rachana vidhan ko bhi prabhavit kiya, kyoanki is yug ke natakakaroan ka rangamanch se jivit sanbandh tha aur ve usaki sanbhavanaoan aur simaoan ko drishti mean rakhakar hi natak likhate the.

elizabeth aur jems pratham ka yug

elizabeth ka yug aangrejoan ke itihas mean rashtriy ekata, adamy utsah, manavatavadi jagarookata ke utkarsh aur mahan prayatnoan ka tha. isaka prabhav sahity ki any vidhaoan ki tarah natak par bhi p da. sheksapiyar sansar ko us yug ki sabase b di sahityik den hai, lekin usake atirikt yah anek b di pratibhaoan ka krititvakal hai. us mahanh‌ yug ki bhoomika taiyar karane mean vishvavidyalayoan mean shikshit hone aur lekhan ko vyavasay banane ke karan f yoonivarsiti vitsaf kahalane vale r aaubart grin (1558-92), j aaun lili (1542-1606), t aaumas kid (1558-94) aur t aaumas marlo (1564-1593) ka visheshat: bahut b da hath hai. grin aur lili ne gitimay prem aur udar prahasan, kid ne pratihiansatmak traijedi aur marlo ne mahatvakaanksha aur naitikata ke sangharsh se paida huee vishamata ki traijedi ko janm diya. latini aur deshaj paranparaoan ke mishran se unhoanne natak ko kalatmakata di. j aaurj pil (1557-1596) aur grin ne natakiy atukaant kavita ka vikas kiya aur marlo ne unase age badhakar use uchchakanth aur vegavan banaya. marlo ke natakoan mean kathasootr shithil hai lekin vah bhayankar aantardvandvoan ki gitimay akritrim abhivyakti aur bhavy chitr yojana mean sheksapiyar ka yogy guru hai. marlo krit f taianbaralenaf , f daktar phastash‌f aur f di jyoo aauv maltaf ke nayak apane abadh vyaktivad ke karan adhyatmik moolyoan se takarate aur toot jate haian. is prakar vyakti aur samaj ke bich sangharsh ko chitrit kar marlo pahale pahal punarjagaran ki vah keandriy samasya prastut karata hai jo sheksapiyar aur any natakakaroan ko bhi aandolit karati rahi. marlo ne aangreji natak ko svarnayug ke dvar par kh da kar diya.

viliyam sheksapiyar

viliyam sheksapiyar (1564-1616) ka praranbhik vikas inhian paranparaoan ki simaoan mean hua. usake praranbhik natakoan mean kala mean siddhahastata prapt karane ka prayatn hai. is praranbhik prayatn ke madhyam se usane apane natakakar ke vyaktitv ko pusht kiya. kathanak, charitr-chitran, bhasha, chhand, chitr yojana aur jivan ki pak d mean usaka vikas us yug ke any natakakaroan ki apeksha adhik shramasadhy tha, lekin 16vian shatabdi ke aantim aur 17vian shatabdi ke praranbhik varshoan mean usaki pratibha ka asadharan utkarsh hua. is kal ke natakoan mean punarjagaran ki sari saanskritik aur rachanatmak kshamata pratibianbit ho uthi. is tarah sheksapiyar ne hal aur h aaulinashed ke itihas grannthoan se ianglaiand aur sk aautalaiand ke rajaoan ki or plutark se rom ke shasakoan ki kathaean lian, lekin unamean usane manavatavadi yug ka bodh bhar diya. praranbhik sukhaant natakoan mean usane lili aur grin ka anukaran kiya, lekin ¢ e midasamar naits drim¢ (1596) aur usake bad ki char aisi hi rachanaoan ¢ di maracheant aauv venis¢ , ¢ mach aido abaut nathiang¢ , ¢ tvelphth nait¢ aur ¢ aij yoo laik it¢ mean usane aangreji sahity mean romaiantik k aaumedi ko naya roop diya. inaka vatavaran darabari k aaumedi se bhinn hai. vahaan ek aisa lok hai jahaan svapn aur yatharth ka bhed mit jata hai aur jahaan hasy ki bauddhikata bhi hriday ki udarata se ardr hai. ¢ mezar ph aaur mezar¢ aur ¢ alz vel dait eands vel¢ mean, jo usake aantim sukhaant natak haian, vatavaran ghane badaloan ke bich chhipate aur unase nikalate hue sooraj ka sa hai. dukhaant natakoan mean praranbhik kal ki rachana ¢ romiyo aiand jooliet¢ mean nayak-nayika ki mrityu ke bavajood parajay ka svar nahian hai. lekin 16vian shatabdi ke bad likhe ge ¢ haimalet¢ , ¢ liyar¢ , ¢ athelo¢ , ¢ maikaveth¢ , ¢ aiantani aiand kliyopetra¢ aur ¢ koriyolenas¢ mean us yug ke shadyantrapoorn dooshit vatavaran mean manavatavad ki parajay ka chitr hai. lekin usake bich bhi sheksapiyar ki apratihat astha ka svar uthata hai. aant mean anubhootiyoan se mukti pane ke lie usane ¢ perikliz¢ , ¢ sianbelin¢ , ¢ di viantars tel¢ aur ¢ teanpest¢ likhe jinamean praranbhik durghatanaoan ke bavajood aant sukhad hote haian. jivan ke vishad jnan aur kavy evan naty sauandary mean sheksapiyar sansar ki ini-gini pratibhaoan mean hai.

ben j aaunsan

ben j aaunsan (1572-1637) aangreji natak mean ¢ vikrit¢ prahasan (kamedi aauv hyoomars) ka janmadata hai. usake diksha guru platas aur hores the, isalie vah achary natakakar hai aur usane sheksapiyar ityadi ki romaiantik k aaumedi mean virodhi tatvoan ke samanvay ka virodh kiya. usaki ¢ vikriti¢ ka arth tha kisi charitr ke doshavishesh ko atiranjit roop mean chitrit karana. usaki prathamik rachanaoan ¢ ebrimain in hiz hyoomar¢ aur ¢ ebrimain aut aauv hiz hyoomar¢ mean isi tarah ka prahasan hai. j aaunsan ke anusar k aaumedi ka kartavy apane yug ka chitr prastut karana aur manav charitr ki moorkhataoan se ¢ kri da¢ karana tha. is tarah usane vidroopapoorn yatharthavadi prahasan natak ko bhi janm diya jisamean usaki prasiddh rachanaean ¢ v aaulpon¢ aur ¢ alakemist¢ haian. j aaunsan ka prahasan gudagudata nahian, dank marata hai.

jems pratham ke shasanakal mean samaj mean badhati huee asthirata aur nirasha tatha darabar mean badhati huee kritrimata ne natak ko prabhavit kiya. sheksapiyar ke paravarti vebstar, tarnar, midilatan, mastarn chaipamain, maisianjar aur phord ke dukhaant natakoan mean vyaktivad asvabhavik mahatvakaankshaoan, bhayankar raktapat aur kroorata, atmapi da aur nirasha mean prakat hua. vebstar ke shabdoan mean, inaka keandriy darshan ¢ phool ke paudhoan ke mool mean naramuand¢ ki anivaryata hai.

k aaumedi mean midilatan (1580-1627) aur maiansianjar (1583-1639) j aaunsan ki paranpara mean the, lekin unamean sthool prahasan aur ashlilata ki bhi vriddhi huee. j aaun palechar (1579-1625) aur phraansis bomaant (1584 . 5-1616) mean k aaumedi ka patan svasth romaans ya prahasan ki jagah dukhapoorn ghatanaoan, nayak-nayikaoan ke kalpanik jivan, atyadhik alankrit aur roodhipriy bhasha tatha asvabhavik ghatanaoan ke roop mean dikh p da. darabar ki prerana se hi isi yug mean mask (Masque) ka bhi janm hua jisamean bhavy drishyoan aur sajasajja tatha sangit ki pradhanata thi. isi samay bhavi vikas ki drishti se mahatvapoorn parivarik samasyamoolak dukhaant natakoan mean sabase prasiddh ¢ arden aauv phivarashaim¢ (1592) hai, jo likha pahale gaya tha par prakashit pichhe hua.

is tarah darabar ke prabhav mean natak janata se door ho raha tha. vastav mean bomaant aur phlechar ki traiji-k aaumedi ka abhinay ¢ praivet¢ rangashalaoan mean mukhyat abhijatavargiy samajikoan ke samane hota tha. agar natak ka janata se jivit sanbandh tha to j aaunsan ki shishy paranpara ke natakoan ke dvara ya sheksapiyar ke paravarti dukhaant natakoan ke dvara, jinaka abhinay ¢ pablik¢ rangashalaoan mean hota tha.

aangreji natak ke vikas ki shrriankhala sahasa 1642 mean toot gee jab kamanavelth yug mean pyooritan sanpraday ke dabav se sari rangashalaean band ki di geean. usaka punarjanm 1660 mean charls dvitiy ke punarrajyarohan ke sath hua.

punarrajyarohan kal

phraans mean luee chaturdash ke darabar mean sharanarthi ki tarah rah chuke charls dvitiy ke lie sanskriti ka adarsh phraans ka darabar tha. usake sath yah adarsh bhi ianglaiand aya. phreanch ritikar aur natakakar aangreji natakakaroan ke adarsh bane. charls ke lautane par droori len aur d aaurset garden ki rangashalaoan ki sthapana huee. rangashalaoan par svayan charls aur dyook aauv y aaurk ka niyantran tha. in rangashalaoan ke samajik mukhyat darabari, unaki premikaean, chhail-chhabile aur kuchh avaragard hote the. ab natak bahusankhyakoan ki jagah alpasankhyakoan ka tha; isalie is yug mean do tarah ke natakoan ka uday aur vikas hua- ek, aise natak jinaki ¢ hiroik¢ dukhaant kathavastu darabariyoan ki ruchi ke anukool ¢ prem¢ aur ¢ atmasamman¢ thi; doosare, aise prahasan jinamean charitrahin kiantu kushagrabuddhi vyaktiyoan ke samajik vyavaharoan ka chitran hota tha (k aaumedi aauv mainars). rangashalaoan mean drishyoan, prakash ityadi ke prabandh ke karan kanoan se jyada aankhoan ke madhyam se kam liya jane laga, jisase elizabeth yug ke natakoan ki shuddh kavita ki anivaryata jati rahi. striyoan ne bhi rangamanch par ana shuroo kiya jisaki vajah se kathanakoan mean kee-kee stri patroan ko rakhana sanbhav hua.

hiroik

hiroik traijedi ka netritv draidan (1631-1700) ne kiya. aise natakoan ki visheshataean thian-- asadharan kshamata aur adarsh vale nayak prem mean asadharan roop se dridh aur atyant suandar nayika, prem aur atmasamman ke bich aantarik sangharsh, shaury, tukaant kavita, oohatmak bhav evan abhivyakti tatha tivr aur sookshm anubhooti ki kami. draidan ka anukaran auroan ne bhi kiya, lekin unako nagany saphalata mili.

is kal mean atukaant chhandoan mean bhi dukhaant natak likhe ge aur unamean hiroik traijedi ki apeksha natakakaroan ko adhik saphalata mili. ye bhi am taur par prem ke vishay mean the. lekin inaki duniya elizabeth yug ke natakoan ke bhishan aantardvandvoan se bhinn thi. yahaan bhi pradhanata oohatmak bhavukata ki hi thi. draidan ke atirikt aise natakakaroan mean keval t aaumas aautave hi ullekhaniy hai.

is yug ne natak ke roop ko ek nee den ¢ aaupera¢ ke roop mean di, jisamean kathopakathan ke atirikt sangit bhi rahata tha.

k aaumedi aauv mainars

k aaumedi aauv mainars ke vikas ne aangreji prahasan natak ka punaruddhar kiya. isake prasiddh lekhakoan mean viliyam vikarli (1640-1716), viliyam kaangriv (1670-1729), j aaurj itharej (1634-1690), j aaun vh aaunabrug (1666-1746) aur j aaurj pharkuhar (1678-1707) haian. inhoanne j aaunsan ke yatharthavadi dhang se charls dvitiy ke darabariyoan jaise amodapriy, pramad, prem ke lie anek durabhisandhiyoan ke rachayita, naitikata aur sadachar ke prati udasin aur saph-suthari kiantu paini boli vale vyaktiyoan ka nagn chitr tatasthata ke sath khiancha. upadesh ya samaj sudhar unaka lakshy nahian tha. isake karan in lekhakoan par ashlilata ka arop bhi kiya jata hai. in natakoan mean j aaunsan ke charitroan ki manasik vividhata ke sthan par ghatanaoan ki vividhata hai. inhoanne j aaunsan ki tarah charitroan ko atiranjan ki shaili se ek-ek durgun ka pratik n banakar unhean unake samajik parivesh mean dekha. unaka sabase b da kam yah tha ki unhoanne aangreji k aaumedi ko bomaant aur phlechar ki kritrim romani bhavukata se mukt kar use sachche arthoan mean prahasan banaya. sath hi j aaunsan ki paranpara bhi shaidavel aur h aauvard ne kayam rakhi.

18vian shatabdi

yah shatabdi gairik aur shrimati sidans jaise abhineta aur abhinetri ki shatabdi thi, lekin natak rachana ki drishti se is yug mean keval do b de natakakar hue: richard briansale sheridan (1751-1816) aur aaulivar goldasmith (1728-74). is shatabdi ki madhyavargiy naitikata ne is yug mean bhavuk (seantimeantal) k aaumedi ko janm diya, jisamean prahasan se adhik jor sadachar par tha. parivarik sukh, adarsh prem aur hriday ki pavitrata ki sthapana ke lie aksar madhyavargiy charitroan ko hi chuna jata tha. aise natakakaroan mean sabase prasiddh sibar, stil, keli, aur kanbaralaiand haian. sheridan aur goldasmith ne aise ashrusianchit sukhaant natakoan ke sthan par shuddh prahasan ko apana lakshy banaya. inhoanne romani tatvoan ke sthan par z aaunsan aur kaangriv ke yatharthavad, vyangy, chubhati huee bhasha aur charitr-chitran mean atiranjan ka anusaran kiya. goldasmithakrit ¢ shi stoops tu kaankar¢ aur sheridan krit ¢ di skool ph aaur skaiandal¢ aangreji prahasan naty ki sarvottam kritiyoan mean gine jate haian.

is shatabdi mean kee lekhakoan ne dukhaant natak likhe, lekin unamean edisan ka ¢ kaito¢ hi ullekhaniy hai. paiantomaim, jo ek tarah se shuddh bhan daiti tha, aur bailad-aaupera (giti naty) bhi is yug mean kaphi lokapriy the. ge ka gitinaty ¢ di begars¢ aaupera to yoorop ke kee deshoan mean abhinit hua. edavard moor ka parivarik samasyamoolak natak ¢ gemsatar¢ aise natakoan mean sabase achchha hai.

19vian shatabdi

romaiantik yug ka poorvardh natak ki drishti se pray shoony hai. sadi, kolarij, bardh‌svarth, sheli, kits, bayaran, laiandar aur brauniang ne natak likhe, lekin adhikatar ve keval padhane layak haian. shatabdi ke uttarardh mean ibsan ke prabhav se aangreji natak ko nee prerana mili. parivarik jivan ko lekar r aaubartasan, jons aur pinaro ne ibsan ki yatharthavadi shaili ke anukaran par natak likhe. unamean ibsan ki pratibha nahian thi, lekin natakiyata aur adhunik shaili ke dvara unhoanne age ka marg saral kar diya.

20vian shatabdi

ibsan ke prachar ne aangreji natak ko nee disha di. usake natakoan ki kuchh visheshataean ye thian- samaj aur vyakti ki sadharan samasyaean; purani naitikata ki alochana; bahari sangharshoan ke sthan par aantarik sangharsh; rangamanch par yatharthavad; vivaranatmak saj-sajja; svagat ka bahishkar; bolachal ki bhasha se nikatata; pratikavad. ibsan ke natak samasya natak haian. 20vian shatabdi ke praranbhik natakakaroan par ibsan ke atirikt chekhav ka bhi gahara asar p da. aise natakakaroan mean sabase pramukh sh aau aur galsavardi ke atirikt grainabil barkar, seant j aaun haiankin, j aaun mesaphild, seant j aaun arvin, arnald benet ityadi haian.

is yug mean k aaumedi aauv mainars ki paranpara bhi vikasit huee hai. 19vian shatabdi ke aant mean aauskar vaild ne isako punarujjivit kiya tha. 20vian shatabdi mean isake pramukh lekhakoan mean sh aau, m aaum, laansadel, seant arvin, munaro, noel kaard, traivars, raitigan ityadi haian.

samasya natakoan ki paranpara bha age badhi hai. unake lekhakoan mean sabase prasiddh o¢ kaisi ke atirikt sheriph, miln, pristale aur j aaun vh aaun draten haian.

is yug ke aitihasik natakakaroan mean sabase prasiddh driankavatar, baiks aur jems bridi haian.

kavy natakoan ka vikas bhi anek lekhakoan ne kiya hai. unamean stiphen philips, yets, mesaphild, driankavatar, bamli, phlekar, abarakruanbi, ti.es. iliyat, aauden, eesharavud, kristophar phraee, dankan, speandar ityadi haian.

adhunik aangreji natak mean ayaralaiand ke tin prasiddh natakakaroan, yets, ledi gregari aur sianj ki bahut b di den hai. yatharthavadi shaili ke yug mean unhoanne natak mean romani aur gitimay kalpana tatha anubhooti ko kayam rakha.

is prakar spasht hai ki 20vian shatabdi mean aangreji natak ka bahumukhi vikas hua hai. rangamanch ke vikas ke sath-sath roopoan mean bhi anek parivartan hue haian. samasamayikata ke karan moolyaankan mean atiranjan ho sakata hai, lekin jis yug mean sh aau, galh‌rsavardi, o kaisi, yets, iliyat, aur sianj jaise natakakar hue haian usaki upalabdhiyoan ka sthayi mahatv hai.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

tika tippani aur sandarbh

san. gran.kaianbrij histri aauv ianglish litarechar; legui aiand kazamiya; histri aauv ianglish litarechar. leguee aiand kajamiya: e histri aauv ianglish litarechar; krek: ianglish proz raitars; seantsabari: ianglish proz ridm. dablyoo.je. kortahop : histri aauv ianglish poetri; kaianbrij histri aauv ianglish litarechar; leguee aiand kazamiya e histri aauv ianglish litarechar; dablyoo.pi. kar ianglish litarechar, medoval; bi.di. solapianto: di ianglish renesaan, 1510-1688; es.je.si. griyarsan kr aaus kareants in ianglish litarechar aauv di seventith seanchuri; edamand g aaus histri aauv ettinth seanchuri litarechar; si.ech. haraphard di ej aauv bardh‌svarth; bi. aiphar ivans ianglish poetri in di letar naintinth seanchuri; eph.ar livis nyoo beyariangs in ianglish poetri. alaradais nikh‌l di thiyari aauv drama, british drama, aur di devalapameant aauv di thiyetar; ee.ke, chaianbars di elizabethan stej; e.ech. tharnadaik ianglish k aaumedi; je.si. trevin di thiyetar sians 1900, aur draimetists aauv tude; elis pharmar ayarish drama.