अमरीकी साहित्य

amariki sahity amarika se yahaan tatpary sanyukt rajy amarika se hai jahaan ki bhasha aangreji hai. amarika ki tarah usaka sahity bhi naya hai.

adikal: 17vian sadi mean amarika mean sharan lenevale pilgrim phadar apane sath ianglaiand ki saanskritik paranpara bhi lete ae. isalie lagabhag do sadiyoan tak amariki sahity aangreji sahity ki lik par chalata raha. 19vian sadi mean jakar use apana vyaktitv mila.

navagantukoan ke samane jivananirvah ki kathinata, kala aur sahity ke prati pyooritan sanpraday ki anudarata aur pratibha ki nyoonata ke karan amariki sahity ka adikal upalabdhiviral hai. is kal mean varjiniya aur masachyoosets sahityarachana ke pradhan keandr the, jinamean varjiniya par samanti aur masachyoosets par madhyavargiy ianglad ka gahara asar tha. kiantu donoan hi keandroan mean pyooritanoan ka prabhutv tha. sahityarachana ka kam padariyoan ke hath mean tha, kyaanki auroan ki apeksha unhean adhik avakash tha. isalie is yug ke sahity ka adhikaansh dharmapradhan hai. mukhy roop mean yah yug patroan, dayari, itihas aur dharmik tatha nitiparak kavitaoan ka hai.

ne upanivesh aur unake vikas ki amit sanbhavanaoan ka varnan, shasan mean dharm aur rajy ke parasparik sanbandhoan ke vishay mean vicharasangharsh, atmakatha, jivanacharit, sahasik yatraean tatha abhiyan aur dharmik upadesh gadyalekhakoan ke mukhy vishay bane. ruksh aur saral kiantu sashakt varnanatmak gadyarachana mean varjiniya ke kaipten j aaun smith aur unaki romaanchakari kritiyaan, e troo rileshan (1608) aur ek maip aauv varjiniya, (1612) vishesh ullekhaniy haian. isi tarah ka varnanatmak gady j aaun haianmand, deniyal deantan, vilayam pen, t aaumas aish, vilayam vud, meri rolaiandasan aur j aaun mesan ne bhi likha.

dharmik vadavivad ko lekar likhi gee naitheniyal vard ki rachana, d sianpil k aaublar aauv aggavam (1647) apane vyangy aur vidroop mean us yug ki mahatvapoorn upalabdhi hai. vard ki tarah hi t aaumas martan ne di nyoo ianglish kainan (1647) mean pyooritanoan ka vyangyatmak chitr prastut kiya tha. doosari or starn jan vthra aauianp ne apane jarnal (1630-49) aur iankris medar aur usake putr k aautan medar ne apani rachanaoan mean pyootin adarshoan aur dharmapradhan rajasatta ka samarthan kiya. k aautan ki maiganeliya kristi amerikana tatkalin pyooritan sanpraday ki sabase pratinidhi aur samriddh rachana hai. us yug ke any gadyakaroan mean vilayam bedaphard, saimuel seval, t aaums sheparrd, jan k aautan, rojar viliyams aur j aaun vaiz ke nam ullekhaniy haian. inamean se anek 18vian sadi mean bhi likhate rahe.

17vian sadi ki kavita anubhooti se adhik upadesh ki hai aur usaka roop anagadh hai. di be samabuk (1640) isaka udaharan hai. kaviyoan mean tin vishesh roop se ullekhaniy haian-maikel vigilsavarth, aini bredastrit aur edavard telar. divy anand aur vedana, eeshabhakti, prakritivarnan aur jivan ke sadharan sukh-du:kh unaki kavitaoan ke mukhy vishay haian. nishkapat anubhooti ke bavajood inaki kavita mean kalatmak sauandary ki kami hai. bredastrit ki kavita mean speansar, sidani aur silavestar tatha telar ki kavita mean dan, kresha, harbart ityadi aangreji kaviyoan ki pratidhvaniyaan spasht haian.

natak aur alochana ka janm age chalakar hua.

18vian sadi - 17vian sadi ke yatharthavadi aur kalpanapradhan gady tatha dharmik kavita ki paranpara 18vian sadi mean n keval purane balki ne lekhakoan mean bhi jivit rahi. udaharanarth, viliyam vird aur jonaidan edavardh‌s ne kramash: kaipten smith aur medar ka anusaran kiya. edavardh‌s ki rachanaoan mean usaki tivr pyooritan bhavana, gahan chiantan, adbhut tarkashakti aur rahasyavadi pravrittiyaan dikh p dati haian. lekin pyooritan kattarapanth ke sthan par dharmik udarata ka bhi uday ho raha tha, jise jonaidan mehm aur seval ki rachanaoan ne vyakt kiya. seval ne apani dayari mean 'dharm ki vyavasayik parikalpana' ka agrah kiya. bird ki di histri aauv di divaidiang lain (1729) aur seranait ke jarnal (1704) mean satrahavian sadi ke purane prabhavoan ke bavajood ianglaiand ke 18vian sadi ke sahity ki laukikata, manasik santulan, vyangy aur vinodapriyata, jivan aur vyaktiyoan ka yatharth chitran aur uchit laghav tatha svachchhata ke adarsh ki chhap hai. vastav mean is sadi ke amariki sahityamandir ki pratimaean aangreji ke prasiddh gadyakar aur kavi aidisar, svipht aur goldasmith haian. sadi ke madhy tak ate-ate dharmik, adhyatmik aur samajik chiantan mean pyooritan sahajanubhooti, rahasyavad aur alaukikata ko tark aur vijnan ne pichhe dhakel diya. ianglaiand aur usake upanivesh ke bich badhate hue sangharshoan aur amariki rajyakraanti ne nee chetana ko aur bhi veg tatha bal diya. usake sabase samarth agrani beanjamin phraiankalin (1706-90) aur t aaumas pen (1737-1809) the. amarika ki adhunik sanskriti ke nirman mean isaka mahanh‌ yog hai.

vyavasayi, vaijnanik, anveshak, rajanitijn aur patrakar phhऱaikalin ke sahity ka akarshan usake asadharan kiantu vyavaharik, sanskrit, sanyamit aur udas vyaktitv mean hai. usaki atobayografi atyant lokapriy rachana hai. usake patroan aur 'doogud' shirshak tatha 'bizibadi' nam se likhe ge nibandhoan mean sadachar aur jivan ki sadharan samasyaoan ki saral, atmiy aur vinodapriy abhivyakti hai, lekin usaki rachana 'rools f aaur ridyoosiang e gret eanpayar tu e smal van' (1793) se usaki prakhar vyangy aur katakshashakti ka bhi pata. chalata hai. tamas pen ka sahity usake kraantikari jivan ka avibhajy aang hai. phhऱaikalin ki salah se vah 1774 ee. mean ianglaiand chho dakar amarika aya aur do varsh bad hi usane amarika ki poorn svatantrata ke samarthan mean kamanaseans ki rachana ki. di ej aauv rijan (1794-96) mean usane eesaee dharme par gahari chot kar diijm ka samarthan kiya. bark ke viruddh phraansisi kraanti ke paksh mean likhi gee usaki rachana di raits aauv main ne us yug mean har desh ke kraantikariyoan ka pathapradarshan kiya. usake gady mean kraantikari vicharoan ki rriju ojasvita hai.

saimuel aidams, j aaun dikinsan, jozeph gailove ityadi ne bhi us yug ki rajanitik halachal ko apani rachanaoan se prabhavit kiya. lekin unase adhik mahatvapoorn gadyalekhak hektar seant jan di srevekoor hai jisane letars phr aaum ain amerikan pharmar (1762) aur skechez aauv etianth seanchuri amerika mean amariki kisan aur prakriti ka adarsh romani chitr prastut kiya. das-pratha-virodhi j aaun voolamain (1720-72) ki visheshata usaki saralata aur madhury hai.

svatantrata ke bad shasan mean keandrikaran ke paksh aur vipaksh mean honevale vadavivad ke sanbandh mean alekzaiandar haimiltan, j aaun je aur t aaumas jepharsan ke nam ullekhaniy haian. jefarsan dvara likhit vishvavikhyat di diklareshan aauv iandipeandeans ka gady apani saral bhavyata mean advitiy hai.

18vian sadi ki kavita ka ek aansh un gitoan ka hai jo yuddhakal mean likhe ge aur jinamean yaanki doodil, naithan hel aur epilog bahut prasiddh haian. is sadi ke kuchh kaviyoan, jaise odel, h aaupkinsan, rabart trit pen, ivans aur kliftan ne atyant kritrim shaili ki rachanaean kian. inase bhijh prakar ke kavi kanektikat ya hartaphard vits ke nam se pukare janevale devid haphhऱeanj, timothi dvait, joelh‌ barlo, j aaun tranbal, daktar saimuel hapkians, richard ailsap aur thiyodor dvait the jinhoanne pop ko adarsh manakar vyangyapradhan dvipadiyaan aur mahakavy likhe. inake lie ritisammat shuddhata kavita ka sabase b da gun thi. in kaviyoan mean timothi dvaith tranbul aur barlo mean apekshakrit adhik maulikata thi. lekin is sadi ka sabase b da kavi filip feno (1752-1832) hai jo ek or atyant tikt vidroop di british prizanaship (1781) ka to doosari or di vaild hanisakh‌lh‌ jaise taral gitikavy ka srashta hai. usaki kavitaoan ne 19vian sadi ki romani kavita ki jamin taiyar ki.

is sadi ke aantim bhag mean upanyas aur natak ka bhi uday hua. t aaumas g aaudafe dvara likhit di prians aauv parthiya (1759) amarika ka pahala natak hai, jise 1767 mean vyavasayik rangamanch par khela gaya. isi prakar rayal tailar rachit di kantrast (1787) amarika ka pahala prahasan hai, halaanki usamean sheridan aur goldasmith ki pratidhvaniyaan sthan-sthan par haian. vilayam danlap is yug ka ek aur ullekhaniy natakakar hai.

amarika ka pahala upanyasakar charls br aaukaden braun (1772-1810) hai jisake prasiddh upanyas vailaiand (1796), aramand (1798), athar marvin (1799), edagar hantali (1799) asanbhavit kathanakoan aur bojhil shaili ke bavajood apani bhavapravanata aur romani charitroan ke karan rochak haian. is samay ke ek any pramukh upanyasakar braikenh‌rij ne madarn shivailari (1792-1815) mean sevaante aur smalet ke adarsh par ati sahasikatapoorn upanyas ki rachana ki. richardasan ke anukaran par bhavukatapoorn upanyas aur kathaean bhi viliyam hil braun, shrimati rausan aur shrimati phastar dvara likhi gee.

19vian sadi - is sadi ke praranbhik varshoan mean nyooyark mean 'nikarab aaukar' nam se pukare janevale lekhakoan ka uday hua jo sahity mean arviang ko vyangyakriti dyedarikh nikarab aaukars e histri aauv nyooyark (1890) ko manoranjak vartalap ki shaili ko apana adarsh manate the. aise lekhakoan mean upanyasakar jems kark paldiang, natakakar danalap, kavi saimuel vudavarth aur j aaurj pi. paris the. phitz-grin hailek aur jozeph rauman drek niche star par bayaran aur kits se milate-julate kavi the. nyooyark mean do achchhe samajhe janevale kiantu vastav mean sadharan gitakar hue-j aaun havard pen aur jems get parsival. patrikaoan mean satahi alochanaoan ka bhi uday hua. dakshin mean tin kaphi achchhe upanyasakar hue-j aaun pedilatan kenedi, viliyam gilmor sims aur j aaun isten kuk.

in lekhakoan ke bich 19vian sadi ke poorvardh mean char aise lekhakoan ka uday hua jinhoanne amariki sahity ko merudand diya aur jo isalie amarika ke pratham shuddh sahityik samajhe jate haian: vashiangatan aviang (1783-1859), viliyam kalen brayant (1794-1878), jems fenimor koopar (1789-1851) aur edagar elen po (1809-49).

arviang ki shaili aidisan, stil, goldasmith aur svift ki tarah manji huee, chapal, adbhut kiantu mohak kalpanayukt aur atmavyanjak hai. usaki kri dapriy kalpana ka putr rip van viankil sansar ke avismaraniy charitroan mean hai. usake prasiddh rekhachitroan, nibandhoan, kathaoan aur any kritiyoan mean vestamianstar abe, straitaphard-an-aivan, di skech buk, rip van viankil, di myootebiliti aauv litarechar, di spektar braidagroom, di slipiang halo ityadi haian. usake vicharoan mean snayu aur gahanata ki kami aur bhavukata ki atishayata hai, kiantu abhivyakti ke svachchh lality mean vah advitiy hai.

brayant amarika ka prakritikavi hai. vah vardh‌svarth ke star ka nahian kiantu usi tarah ka kavi hai aur usamean vardh‌svarth ki chiantanashilata, sanyam aur naitikata hai. usane pahali bar kavita mean amarika ke drishyoan, pe d-paudhoan aur chi diyoan ka varnan kiya. usaki kavita mean romani tatvoan ke sath spashtata bhi hai. atukaant chhand usaka priy madhyam tha aur usamean use kaphi dakshata prapt thi. thainet aauॅpsis kavita usaka udaharan hai. vah amarika ka pahala kavi hai jisamean keval kaushal hi nahian balki uchch koti ki pratibha ke bhi darshan hote haian.

koopar janavad, prakritisauandary aur nishchhal jivan ka romani upanyasakar hai. usaki kalpana jangaloan, ghas ke maidanoan aur samudroan ke oopar mandarati hai tatha sahas aur parakram par mugdh ho uthati hai. sabhyata se achhoote red iandiyanoan ka chitran vah aantyant sahanubhooti aur sookshm aantardrishti ke sath karata hai; naiti banpo aur ledar st aaukiang usake mahanh‌ charitr haian. deshaprem ke bavajood vah amariki samaj ke janavirodhi, adanbarapoorn, kroor aur svarthapriy roop ka tivr alochak hai. usaki prasiddh rachanaoan mean ledarast aaukiang tels mala ki ye kathaean haian: di payeniyars (1823), di last aauv di mohikans (1826), di preyari (1827), di pathaphaiandar (1840); di diyar sleyar (1841). use sar valtar skat ke samakaksh rakha ja sakata hai.

po atyadbhut jivan ka kavi aur kathakar hai. usaki rachanaoan mean manovaijnanik agrahoan ka samavesh hai. svayan amarika ne usake kaviroop ki upeksha ki, kiantu 'di raiven' (1845) adi kavitaoan ne phraans ke pratikavadiyoan aur adhunik yooropiy kavita ko bahut prabhavit kiya. usaki kavitaoan mean sarvatha maulik rachanakaushal hai aur ve apane sangit ki shuddhata, sookshmata, saral madhury aur vividhata ke lie prasiddh haian. alochak ke roop mean bhi usaka mahatv hai. po jasoosi kahaniyoan ke sansthapakoan mean hai, kiantu usaki khyati tels aauv di grotesk aiand arabesk (1840) ko romaanchakari vedan aur rahasyatmak vatavaranapoorn kathaoan par adhik nirbhar hai.

navajagaran kal - presideant jaiksan ke shasan se lekar punarnirman tak ka samay (1829-1870) audyogik vikas aur janavadi astha ke samanaantar amariki sahity mean navajagaran ka yug hai. dharm aur rajaniti ki tarah is yug ka sahity bhi udar aur romani manavatavadi drishtikon se sanprikt hai.

hasyasahity par bhi is janavadi pravritti ki spasht chhap hai. nyoo ianglaiand ke hasyakaroan mean seba smith (1772-1868) ne jaik dauniang aur jems rasel l aauvel (1819-91) ne hosiya bigali aur bardaphraeedam savin, aur beanjamin pi. shilaibar (1814-90) ne misez patiangatan aur unake bhatije aik jaise sadharan yaanki charitroan ke madhyam se rajanitik aur samajik samasyaoan ki yatharth aur vinodapoorn samiksha ki. devi kr aauket (1786-1836), agastas valvin aangastrit (1790-1870), j aaunsan je. hoopar (1815-63), t aaumas baiangs th aaurp (1815-78), jozeph ji. baldavin (1815-64) aur jarj hairis (1814-64) jaise dakshin-pashchim ke hasyakar unase bhi adhik vinodapriy the.

navajagaran kal ke praranbh ke kaviyoan mean amarika ke lokapriy kavi henari vardh‌svarth laangaphelo (1807-82) ke atirikt alivar beandel homs (1809-94) aur jems rasel aauvel vishesh roop se ullekhaniy haian. vishvavidyalayoan mean achary pad par kam karane ke karan inhean yooropiy saanskritik aur sahityik paranparaoan ka gahara jnan tha, lekin amariki jivan hi unaki kavita ka mool srot hai. naisargik saral pravah ke sath katha kahane ya varnan karane mean laangaphelo atyant saphal kavi hai. upadesh ki pravritti ke bavajood usaki kavitaean marmasparshi haian. usaki prasiddh kavitaoan mean di slebs drim aur hayavatha haian. homs aur l aaubel ki kavitaoan ki visheshataean kramash: nagar vinodapriyata aur bhavoan ki udattata haian.

kaviyoan mean amariki janavad ki sabase mahanh‌ aur maulik upaj valt hvitaman (1819-92) hai. sadharan vyakti ki asadharanata ke vishvas se bhare hue svapnadrashta kavi mean adikaviyoan ka ujhatavaksh, sahasik, unmadapoorn aur vajratumul svar hai. vah muktachhand ka janmadata bhi hai. pahali bar 1855 mean prakashit aur samay ke sath parivardhit usake kavyasangrah jibs aauv gras ne phraans ke pratikavadi kaviyoan aur yoorop ki adhunik kavita par gahara asar dala.

dakshin ke kaviyoan mean ullekhaniy nam henari timar aaud, pal haimiltan hen aur viliyam je. gresan ke haian. inamean se adhikatar dasasvamiyoan ke janavirodhi drishtikon ke samarthak the. prakritik sauandary ke chitran, kavyasangit aur chhandaprayogoan ki drishti se inase adhik pratibhasanpajh kavi sidani lainiyar tha.

isi yug ne lokottaravadi kahe janevale chiantanashil gadyakaroan ko ujhat kiya jinamean ralph valdo imarsan (1803-82) aur henari devid thoro (1817-62) sabase prasiddh haian. ye masachyoosets ke kaank aaurd namak gaanv mean rahate the aur inaki rachanaoan par nyoo iglaiand ke yooniteriyan sanpraday ki dharmik udarata aur rahasyavadi aantardrishti ka spasht prabhav hai. imarsan ke anusar dharm ka tatv naitik acharan hai. isalie usaka rahasyavad lokajivan ke prati udasin nahian hai. saral, chitramay shabd, sooktipriyata, gahan kiantu kavisulabh anubhootimay chiantan aur shaant, snigdh vyaktitv usake sahity ki visheshataean haian. esej (1841, 1844), riprejeantetiv men (1850) aur ianglish trez (1856) usaki prasiddh rachanaean haian.

thoro ne pashchim aur poorv ke granthoan ka adhyayan kiya tha. usamean imarsan ki tulana mean adhik vyavaharikata aur vinodapriyata hai. usamean prasiddh rachana valden (1854) jivan mean naisargikata ki or lautane ke darshan ka pratipadan hai. apani doosari prasiddh pustak sivil dish‌obidieans (1849) mean usane shasan mean arajakatavad ke siddhaant ki sthapana ki. usaki rachanaoan mean amariki vyaktivad ki charamavastha vyakt huee.

em aaus braansan elk aaut, j aaurj ripale, orastes brauansan, magaianret fular aur jons beri us yug ke any mahatvapoorn lokottaravadiyoan mean haian. lokottaravadiyoan mean se anek 1848 ki kraanti se prabhavit hue the aur unhoanne tarah-tarah ki arajakatavadi, samajavadi ya samyavadi yojanaoan ka prayog kiya aur striyoan ke lie matadhikar, majadooroan ki sthiti mean sudhar aur veshabhoosha tatha khanapan mean sanyam ka aandolan chalaya.

sudhar ke is yug mean anek lekhakoan ne dasoan ki mukti ke lie bhi aandolan kiya. is sangharsh ka netritv viliyam el. gerisan (1805-79) ne kiya. usane di libaretar namak saptahik nikala jisake prasiddh lekhakoan mean gadyakar veandel philips (1811-84) aur kavi j aaun grinajif hvitier (1807-92) the. hvitier ki kavitaean sar kiantu padadalitoan ke lie apar karuna aur sneh se poorn haian. poegs riten dyooriang di progres aauvh‌ di ebalishan kveshchanh‌ v aauyavez aauvh‌ phridam, saangzh‌ aauv di lebar adi usake kavyasangrahoan ke nam se hi usaki kavyavastu ka pata chal jata hai. usaki kavita ki bhasha aur chhand par bhi gramin prabhav hai. 19vian sadi ki sabase prasiddh nigro kavayitri phraansis ailen vatkians harpar (1825-1911) hai, jisaki kavitaoan mean bailadoan ki saralata hai.

das-pratha-virodhi aandolan ne amarika ke vishvavikhyat upanyas aankil t aaums kebin (1852) ki lekhika hairiet bichar stove (1811-96) ko utpann kiya. usake upanyas mean vinod, tivr anubhooti aur darun yatharth ka durlabh mishran hai.

itihas ke kshetr mean bhi is kal mean kuchh prasiddh lekhak hue jinamean pramukh j aaurj baiankraft, j aaun lthroa aaup m aautale aur phraansis parkamaine haian.

amarika ke do mahanh‌ upanyasakar, natheniyal hath aaurn (1804-84) aur harman melavil (1819-91) isi yug ki den haian. hath aaurn ki kathaoan ka dhaancha itihas aur romaans ke sanmishran se taiyar hota hai, lekin unaki atma yatharthavad hai. samaj aur vyakti ke sangharsh aur usase avirbhoot anek naitik samasyaoan ka sookshm manovaijnanik drishti, katharoopakoan aur pratikoan ke sahare prastut karane mean hath aaurn advitiy hai. usaki sabase prasiddh rachana di skaralet letar (1850) isaka praman hai.

melavil akarshak kiantu papamay sansar mean manav ke anavarat kiantu dridh sangharsh ka upanyasakar hai. navik jivan ke vyapak anubhav ke adhar par usane is darshanik drishtikon ko apane mahanh‌ upanyas mobi dik ar di hvait hvel mean ahab namak navik aur saphed hvel ke romaanchakari sangharsh mean vyakt kiya. roopak aur pratik, uddam charit, bhav aur bhasha, virath aur rahasyamay drishy, aantardrishti ke t dith‌ alok mean jivan ka udghatan-ye melavil ke upanyasoan aur kathaoan ki visheshataean haian.

is kal mean deniyal bebsatar, reand aaulf aauv roanok, henari kle aur j aaun si. kailhaun ne gady mean vaktritv shaili ka vikas kiya. vebstar ne dasapratha ka virodh kiya. aantim tin dakshin mean prachalit dasapratha ke samarthak the. presideant abraham liankan ka sthan inamean sabase ooancha haian. feyaravel tu spriangafild (1861), di farst inagaral aidres (1861), di getis barg spich (1863) aur di sekand inagaral aidres (1865) bhashan mean upayukt shabdoan, chitroan aur layoan ke prayog ki adbhut kshamata ke parichayak haian. liankan ke gady par baibil aur sheksapiyar ki spasht chhap hai.

grihayuddh se 1914 tak-grihayuddh aur usake bad ka samay vijnan ki unnati ke sath amarika mean ne udyogoan aur nagaroan ke uday ka hai. 19vian sadi ke aant tak jagaloan ke kat jane ke karan desh ki sima atalaantik se prashaant mahasagar tak phail gee. is nee sthiti mean apane vyaktitv ke prati sajag aur atmavishvas se bhare hue adhunik amarika ka uday hua.

atmavishvas ka yah svar is yug ke amariki hasy sahity mean maujood hai. charls ferasbraun, devid r aaus l aauk, charls henari smith, henari hvilar sha aur edagar dablyoo. ne kramash: artemas vard, petroliyam bi (vesooviyas) naijbi, bil arp, j aaush vilagz aur bil naee ke kalpit nam dharan kar apani samakalin ghatanaoan aur samasyaoan par jan boojhakar ganvaroo, vyakaran ke doshoan se bhari huee, rasabhangapoorn aur latini ya vidvatapoorn sandarbhoan se ladi bhasha mean vinodapoorn vicharavimarsh kiya. unhoanne sahity mean 'ranjanakari moorkhoan' ke vesh mean amariki hasy ko vikasit kiya.

kathasahity mean sthaniy vatavaran ya aanchalikata ka vyapak dhang se istemal hua. aise kathakaroan mean, samay aur sthan donoan hi drishtiyoan se, phraansis bret hart pratham hai. usane prashaant mahasagar ke tatiy jivan ke chitr aankit kie. di lak aauv roriang kaianp aiand adar skechez (1870) mean usane kailiforniya ke khadan majadooroan ke jivan ki vinod aur bhavukatapoorn jhaanki prastut ki. isi tarah stove ne old taun foks (1869) aur saim lausans oldataun fayarasaid storij (1871) mean nyoo ianglaiand kejivan ke manoranjak chitr aankit kie. edavard egilstan ka upanyas di hoozier skoolamastar (1871) iandiyana ke praranbhik dinoan ke jivan par adharit hai. viliyam sidani portar (or' henari: 1862-1910) aisi kathaoan ke lie prasiddh hai. atit itihas mean sthit kiantu yatharth se prerit in kathaoan mean bhavukata, vinod, chitratmakata aur vilakshanata ki pradhanata hai. aisi kathaoan ke rachanakaroan mean j aaurj vashiangatan kebil, t aaumas nelsan pej, joel chaidalar hairis, meri noailis marfi, sara orn jivet, henari kailar aur meri vilkians phhऱimain bhi mahatvapoorn haian.

in kathakaroan se amarika ke mahanh‌ sahityakar saimuel laiangharn klemeans (mark tven: 1835-1910) ka nikat sanbandh hai. mark tven ke anek upanyasoan par usake bhramanashil jivan ka asandigdh prabhav hai. di aidaveanchars aauv t aaum sayar (1876), laif an di misisipi (1823) aur di aidaveanchars aauv haklaberi fin (1884) mark tven ke vyapak anubhav, charitroan ke nirman ki usaki advitiy pratibha aur kavyamay kiantu paurushey shaili ki kshamata ke praman haian. vyangy aur bhaand ke nirman mean bhi kam hi lekhak usake samatuly haian.

viliyam din h aauvels ne jivan ke sadharan pakshoan ke yatharth chitran par jor diya. usake samaksh kala se adhik mahatv manavata ka tha. svabhavik chitran par jor denevaloan mean ee. dablyoo. hove, jozef karkalaiand aur j aaun viliyam di farest bhi ullekhaniy haian. haimalin garalaiand ne kisanoan ke jivan aur yaun sanbandhoan ke katu yatharth ko chitrit kiya.

amarika ki yatharthavadi paranpara ke mahanh‌ lekhakoan mean thiyodor drejar (1871-1945) ka nirvivad sthan hai. drejar ne sahas ke sath amarika ke pooanjivadi samaj ki kroorata aur patanashilata ka nagn chitr prastut kiya, jisase kuchh log use ashlil bhi kahate haian. kiantu sistar kairi, jeni garahardh‌t, di phaineansiyar, di taitan aur ain amerikan traijedi jaise usake prasiddh upanyasoan se spasht hai ki jivan ke katu yatharth ke tivr bodh ke bavajood moolat: vah suandar jivan aur manaviy naitikata ki trisha se akul hai.

phraiank n aauris aur stiphen kren (1870-1900) prabhavavadi kathakar haian. unamean chamatkarik bhasha ki asadharan kshamata hai. hairald phredarik (1856-1898) mean vyangyapoorn charitrachitran ki asadharan kshamata hai.

henari jems (1843-1916) charitroan ke sookshm aur yatharth manovaijnanik adhyayan ke sath-sath kala ke prati jagarukata ke lie prasiddh hai. kahani ke sugathan ki drishti se vah sansar ke ine-gine lekhakoan mean hai. alochak ke roop mean vah di art aauv fikshan (1884) jaisi mahatvapoorn pustak ka praneta hai. amariki aur yooropiy sanskritiyoan ki takarahat prastut karane mean usake upanyas bejo d haian.

romani vatavaran mean jivan ke yatharth ko roopayit karanevale upanyasakaroan mean jaik landan aur aptan siankleyar pratham koti ke haian. jaik landan ka di kal aauv di vaild (1903) aur siankleyar ka di jangal (1906) isake udaharan haian. romani aur vilakshan upanyasoan tatha kahaniyoan ke saphal lekhakoan mean faansis mairiyan kr aaufard, aianbroz biyars aur laifakaidiyo harn haian.

henari aidams ne apani atmakatha 'di ejukeshan aauv henari aidams' (1906) mean adhunik amariki jivan ka nirashapoorn chitr aankit kiya. amarika ki arthik, rajanitik aur samajik vyavastha ki shalyakriya ida em. taravel ne histri aauv di staiandard ayal kanpani aur liankan stifeans ne di shem aauv di sitij mean kiya. charls dadale varnar aur edavard belagi ne bhi pooanji ki badhati huee shakti aur naukarashahi ke bhrashtachar par akraman kiya.

edavin markham aur vilayam hv aaun moodi ki kavitaoan mean bhi alochana ka vahi svar hai. is prakar pratham mahayuddh ke poorv hi amarika ki pooanjivadi vyavastha ki alochana hone lagi thi. anek lekhakoan ne samajavad ko mukti ke marg ke roop mean apanaya. aise lekhakoan ke agrani thiyodor drezar, jaik landan aur aptan siankleyar the.

valt hvitaman ko chho dakar 19vian sadi ke aantim aur 20vian sadi ke praranbh ke varsh kavita mean sadharan upalabdhi se age n ja sake. apavad svaroop emili dikinsan (1830-1886) hai jo nishchay hi amarika ki sabase b di kavayitri hai. usaki kavitaoan ka svar atmaparak hai aur unamean usake gramin jivan aur asaphal prem ke anubhav tatha rahasyatmak anubhootiyaan abhivyakt huee haian. dikinsan ki kavita mean yatharth, vinoed, vyangy aur kataksh, vedana aur ullas ki vividhata hai. chitrayojana, saral aur kshipr bhasha, khandit panktiyoan aur kalpana ki bauddhik vichitrata mean vah adhunik kavita ke atyant nikat hai. pratham mahayuddh ke bad-yoorop ki tarah amarika mean bhi yah kal natak, upanyas, kavita aur sahity ki any vidhaoan mean prayog ka hai.

natak ke kshetr mean grihayuddh ke pahale r aaubart maantagomari bard aur j aaurj henari bokar atukaant du:khaant natakoan ke lie aur diyar boosik aault atiranjit ghatanaoan se poorn natakoan ke lie sadharan roop mean ullekhaniy haian. grihayuddh ke bad bhi natakoan ka vikas bahut santoshajanak n raha. jems ean. harn, braansan h aauvard, agastas t aaumas aur klaid fitsh mean rangamanch ki samajh hai, lekin unake natakoan mean bhavoan aur vicharoan ka satahipan hai. pratham mahayuddh ke bad natak ke kshetr mean anek prayog hone lage aur yoorop ka gahara asar p da. natak mean ganbhir svar ka uday hua. is aandolan ka utkarsh yoojin o' nil (1888-1953) ke natakoan mean prakat hua. o' nil ke natakoan mean yatharthavad, abhivyanjanavad aur chetana ke staroan ke udghatan ke anek prayog haian. kiantu in prayogoan ke bavajood o' nil kavisulabh kalpana aur bhavaveg ke sath jivan ke prati apane du:khaant drishtikon ki abhivyakti par adhik bal deta hai.

mark k aauneli, j aaurj es. k aaufamain, elmar rais, maiksavel aiandarsan, r aaubart sherud, klifard odets, tharnatan vaildar tenaisi, viliyams aur arthar milar ne bhi natak mean yatharthavad, prahasan, sangitaprahasan, kavy aur abhivyanjana ke prayog kie. yoorop ke adhunik natyasahity aur amarika mean 'laghu' aur lalit rangamanchoan ke uday ne unhean shakti aur prerana di.

adhunik amariki kavita ka praranbh edavin aliangatan r aaubiansan (1869-1935) aur rabart phhऱast (1874-1963) se hota hai. paranparagat tukaant aur atukaant chhandoan ke bavajood unaka drishtikon aur vishayavastu adhunik hai; donoan mean avasadapoorn jivan ke chitr haian. r aaubiansan mean anastha ka mukhar svar hai. phhऱast ki kavita ki visheshataean aantarang shaili mean sadharan anubhav ki abhivyakti, sanyamit, sankshipt aur svachchh vaktavy, natakiyata aur hasy tatha chiantan ka sammishran hai. po aur dikinsan roopavadi shaili se prabhavit any ullekhaniy kavi vailes stiveans (j. 1879), elinar vaili (1885-1928), j aaun goldaphlechar (1886-1950) aur meriyan moor (j. 1887) haian.

hairiyat munaro (1860-1936) dvara shikago mean sthapit poetri: e maigazin aauv vars amariki kavita mean prayogavad ka keandr ban gee. isake madhyam se dhyan akarshit karanevale kaviyoan mean vaichel liandase (1879-1931), karl saiandabarg (j. 1878) aur edagar li mastars (1869-1950) pramukh haian. ye gramoan, nagaroan aur charagahoan ke kavi haian. mastars kavita mean gahara vishad hai, lekin saiandabarg ki praranbhik kavitaoan mean manushy mean astha ka svar hi pradhan hai. hart kren (1899-1932) mean hvitman ka romani drishtikon hai. yah romani drishtikon naomi replaansko, j aaun gardan, j aaun hal hvil aauk, aivar viantars aur thiyodor rotheshk ki kavitaoan mean bhi hai. arkibald maiklish (j. 1892) ki kavitaoan mean sarvahara ke sangharshoan ka chitr hai. stiphen vianseant bene (1898-1943) vyapak manav sahanubhooti ka kavi hai. usake vailad atyant saphal haian. hores gregari (j. 1898) aur keneth paichen (j. 1911) ki kavitaoan par bhi hvitman ka prabhav spasht hai. doosari or r aaubiansan jephars (j. 1887) hai jo apani kavitaoan mean manushy ke prati akroshapoorn ghrina aur prakriti ke darun drishyoan se prem ke liy prasiddh hai.

emi l aauvel (1874-1925) aur ech.di. (hilda doolitil: j. 1886) ne imejist kavyadhara ka netritv kiya. ezara pauand (j.1885) aur ti.es. iliyat (1888-1965) ne adhunik amariki kavita mean prayogavad par gahara asar dala. unase aur 'metafizikal' shaili ke roopavad se prabhavit kaviyoan mean jan krove raiansam (j. 1888), k aaunar aaud aiken (j. 1889), r aaubart pen vairen (j. 1905), ailen tet (j. 1899), pitar vairek (j. 1916), karl shaipiro (j. 1913), richard vilbur (j. 1921), ar.pi. blaikamoor (j. 1904) tatha anek any kavi haian. abhivyakti mean ghanatv, chamatkar aur dikshagamyata unaki visheshataean haian. inake anusar kavita ka arth nahian, astitv hona chahie.

prayogavadiyoan mean ee.ee. karmigz (j. 1894) panktiyoan ke praranbh mean b de aksharoan ko hatane tatha viramoan aur panktiyoan ke vibhajan mean prayogoan ke lie prasiddh haian.

20vian sadi ki kavayitriyoan mean sara tizadel (1894-1933) aur edna seant vianseant mile (1892-1950) apane sanetoan aur atmaparak gitoan ki spashtoktiyoan ke lie prasiddh haian. mile mean prakhar samajik chetana hai. jems velden j aaunsan (1871-1938), laiangasten hhrooajez (j. 1902) aur kauanti klain (1903-46) nigro kavi haian jinhoanne nigro jati ki samasyaoan par dhyan keandrit kiya.

20vian sadi ke any prayogavadiyoan mean mark hv aaun doren, liyoni aidams, r aaubart l aauvel, h aaubart horan, jems meril, dablyoo. es. marvin, delamor shvarth‌j, myooriel rukesar, vinafilh‌d taunale sk aaut, elizabeth bishap, meril moor, aaugaden naish, pitar vairek, jan kiyardi adi aise kavi haian jinapar valt hvitman ki kavita ka aanshik prabhav hai. apekshakrit ne prayogavadiyoan mean j aaun pil vishap, raiandal jerel, richard ebarahart, j aaun bairimain, j aaun phredarik nims, j aaun mailkam brinin aur h aauvard nemerov haian. samajik yatharth aur svasth janavadi chetana ko mahatv denevale adhunik kaviyoan mean valtar lovenafels, martha milet, meridel le syoor, t aaumas maikgrath, eev meriyam, keneth reksar aauth ityadi ullekhaniy haian.

pratham mahayuddh ke bad ki mukhy pravrittiyoan ko sankshep mean is prakar vyakt kiya ja sakata hai-samajik yatharth ke prati jagarookata, usaki vishamataoan se takarakar tootate hue svapnoan ka bodh, pooanjivadi samaj aur usaki arthik, rajanitik aur samajik manyataoan se vidroh aur nee samajik vyavastha tatha jivan ke ne moolyoan ki khoj.

is vidroh mean kathakaroan ne phrayad ke manovijnan aur marks ke darshan ka sahara liya. jaimas braanch kaibel ne jargen (1919) mean phrayadavadi pratikoan ke madhyam se amariki samaj aur yaun sanbandhi usake roodhigat drishtikon ki alochana ki. jona gel (1874-1938) aur rooth sachcho (j. 1892) ne gaanvoan ke jivan par se romani avaran hata diya. gaanvoan ke sankuchit jivan aur kuanthit yaun sanbandhoan ka sabase b da chitrakar sheravud aiandarsan hai.

yatharthavad ko prabal banane mean drezar ke atirikt eph. skat phitjerald aur siankleyar livis ka bahut b da hath tha. phitjerald ke dis said aauv pairadaiz (1920) aur di gret gaitjbi (1935) mean amarika ke bhagn svapnoan aur naitik hras ka chitr hai. levil ne men strit (1920) mean gaanvoan, baibit (1922) mean vyavasay, erosmith (1925) mean pooanjivadi vijnan, elmar gaiantri (1927) mean dharm, it kaant haipen hiyar (1935) mean phasijm ki pravrittiyoan aur kiangzablad r aauyal (1947) mean nigro jati ke prati anyay ke chitr prastut kar amariki samaj mean vyapak hras ke lakshan dikhae. lekin inamean livis ka svar parajay ka nahian balki samajavad ki sthapana dvara samasyaoan par aantim vijay ka tha. jems ti. pherel ne tin khandoan mean likhe ge upanyas stads laanjiyan (1932-35) mean samajik vishamataoan ko chitrit kiya. richard rait ke upanyasoan mean nigro jati ke jivan ka chitr hai. ech.el. meanken ne prejudisez (1919-27) mean samajik aandhavishvasoan aur anyayoan par akraman kiya. rabart pen varen ne al di kiangz men mean vyangy aur akrosh ke sath phasijm ko dhikkara. j aaun d aaus pas aaus ki khyati yuddhavirodhi upanyas thrai soljars se huee aur doosare yuddh tak usane manahatan traansafar aur f aaurti-sekand pairelel, 1919 aur di big mani namak tin khandoan ke upanyas mean adhunik amariki samaj ki katu alochana ki.

arnest hemiangve (1899-1961), viliyam f aaukanar (1897-1962) aur jan stainabek (j. 1902) ki ganan adhunik kal ke tin b de upanyasakaroan mean hai. inhoanne nirasha se praranbh kiya, lekin bad mean astha ki or laute. spen ke grihayuddh ne hemiangve ko janata ki shakti ka bodh karaya aur usake do prasiddh upanyas tu haiv aiand n aaut (1937) aur ph aaur hoom di bel t aauls (1940) isi vishvas ki upaj haian. hemiangve bul-phait mean pradarshit manav ke apar parakram aur usamean manushy ya pashu ke anivary aant se utpann karuna ka kathakar bhi hai. hemiangve ki shaili mean baibil se milati-julati saralata, snayavikata aur madhury hai.

ph aaukanar 'chetana ki aantardhara' shaili ka upanyasakar hai. usake upanyasoan mean dasapratha ke gadh dakshin ke samajik aur saanskritik kshay ke chitr haian. dakshin ke jivan ke sookshmatisookshm vivaranoan ke jnan ke karan vah amarika ka sabase b da aanchalik upanyasakar mana jata hai. usake upanyasoan mean dikshagamyata ki pravritti bhi hai. stainabek ne aitihasik upanyasoan mean samajavirodhi aur arajakavadi drishtikon se praranbh kiya. bad mean usane marksavadi darshan apanaya aur is prabhav ke yug mean likhe ge usake do upanyas in dubiyas baitil (1939) aur di greps aauv rath atyanth prasiddh haian.

charitroan ke ragatmak paksh, pratikoan aur vakyarachana mean lay par bal denevale upanyasakaroan mean vila kedar, kaitharin aini portar aur t aaumas vulph ka pramukh sthan hai. ne prayogoan se prabhavit kiantu mukhyat: upanyas ke paranparagat roop ko surakshit rakhanevale upanyasakaroan mean tin mahilaean ullekhaniy haian-edith hvartan, ailen glaisgo aur parl es. bak. marksavadi ya amarika ki svasth janataantrik paranpara ke prati sachet samakalin upanyasakaroan mean ira bulfart, melar henari rath, dablyoo.ee.bi. dub aauy, jan saianphard, barbara gails, h aauvard fast, riang lardanar jooniyar, daltan tranbo, filip bonoski, l aauyad el. braun, vi.je. jerom aur ben fild ne bhi mahatvapoorn kary kiya hai. gady shaili ki maulikata ki drishti se gartrood stin amarika ka advitiy lekhak hai.

20vian sadi ka poovardh alochana sahity mean atyant samriddh hai. isaka praranbh 'manavatavadi' eevig baibit aur usake sahayogiyoan, pal elmar mor, narman farestar aur stuart sheraman dvara manav mean astha ke nam par yatharthavad ke virodh ke roop mean hua. doosari or ech.el. meanken ne yatharthavad ka samarthan kiya. sahity mean svasth samajik drishtikon par jor denevale alochakoan mean vanavik bruk aur bi. el. pairiangatan ka bahut ooancha sthan hai.

alochana mean marksavadi drishtikon ka sootrapat karanevaloan mean vi. eph. kailavartan, grainavil hiks aur maik gold the. isaka put edamand vilsan, keneth bark, aur jems ti. farel ki alochanaoan mean bhi hai. aj bhi anek alochak is drishtikon se likhate haian aur unamean pramukh sidani fikelastin, saimuel silen, looee hairap, fipi bonoski, alabart maltj, vi.je. jerom, charls hanboldt aur harbart aipthekar haian.

martan di. zaibel, ezara pauand, hulm, aee. e. richardh‌s aur ti. es. iliyat ki alochanaoan ne amarika ki 'nee alochana' ko janm diya. 'nee alochana' mukhyat: roopavadi alochana hai jo vastu aur drishtikon ke sthan par rachana ki prakriyaoan par jor deti hai. isake pradhan pracharakoan mean dakshin ke roodhivadi sahityakar aur alachak ar. pi. blaikamoor, ailen tet, jan krove raiansam, klianth bruks aur rabart pen vairen haian.

nagn yaun chitran aur pashavik pravrittiyoan ke jor pak dane se doosare mahayuddh ke bad amariki sahity ka sankat bahut gahara hua hai. livis, das pais aaus, stainabek, saiandabarg, hiks, h aauvard fast adi anek lekhakoan ne samajavadi devata ke kooch kar jane ki bat kahi hai. lekin samajavad ke sath-sath ameriki sahity aur sanskriti ki mahanh‌ janavadi paranparaoan ka visarjan adhunik amariki sahity ke vikas mean badhak hai.

amariki sahity (1945-1970)-dvitiy mahayuddh ke bad se 1970 tak ka amariki sahity kavyaroopoan ko to data evan punarnirmit karata raha hai. paranparaoan par aghat unake aantarik shaktipat ka hi dyotak hai. yuddhottar sahity mean hamean manav ke astitv ka navikrit bodh milata hai. manushy ki niji hasti par hone vale akramanoan ke pratirodh ki abhivyakti milati hai. pratijnabaddhataoan evan asthaoan ka punarnirikshan kiya gaya hai. is kal ke amariki sahity mean lekhak ke jivanadarshan ke samaroop hi ant:karani virodh ka sahas hai. vah atmahasti evan samaj ke bhi dant ke adharagat tathy ka anveshan sahityik kala ke roop evan virodh dvara satat karata raha hai. yah sahity pratyakhyani evan naya hai.

yah sahity yuddhottar vighatak gart evan vinashakari astavyastata ki prishthabhoomi se aankurit ho apana nirman karata hai. yuddh ke bad satat shitayuddh ne use jivan ki anubhootiyaan dian, jinamean pramukh ye haian-prabal kiantu arthahin hiansa, atmaparag, samaj se aparag, manushy ka amanavikaran, aanbari samaj evan maharajy ke paishachi para yatharth mean vyakti ki durgati, sarvashaktisanpajh arthik evan rajanitik nihitasvarthoan dvara vijnapan tatha prachar ke madhyam se logoan ka mastishk prakshalan. aise paishachi jagath‌ mean sarjit honevala sahity ajanabi ke madhyam se prem evan svatantrata ka anveshan karata hai. vah daman ke samajik vatavaran mean likha gaya vyakti ki atmahasti ka sahity hai, jisamean vrittigat anivaryataean hi marganirdeshak haian. naitikata bhi vaiyaktik evan astitvaparak ho gee hai, aur isilie vyangyatmak tatha anishchit. rajy evan samaj mean moolyoan ka sarvanash ho jane par bhi yah sahity apane ko atmahasti evan jivan ke prati samarpit karata hai. isaka sankalp dharmotsah ke sannikat hai.

yahaan yah sanket kar dena avashyak hai ki oordhvavarnit manushy evan samaj ki sthiti tatha tatsanbandhi sahityik pravrittiyaan matr amariki nahian, apitu aantararashtriy haian. yuddhottar vishv ka amarikikaran ho chuka hai athava ho raha hai.

upanyas-yuddhottar kathasahity shaktishali evan vaividhyapoorn hai. yuddhasanbandhi upanyas bhi is tathy ki pushti karate haian. jan harsi, jarj, maiandal, jan harn barnz (d gailaro, 1947), narman melar (d neked aiand d ded, 1948), jan haks (d kainibal, 1949), jems jons (phram hiyar tu itarniti, 1951), tamas bargar (kraizi in barlin, 1958), tatha jazef helar (kaich--22, 1961) ke yuddhasanbandhi kathasahity mean bhi roop evan sahityik uddeshy ki prachur vividhata hai. upanyas ki yah anekaroopata evan anekoddeshyata satah ke niche samaj ke khand-khand ho jane ke karan hai. barnard melamood ke upanyasoan mean yahoodi samaj ka chitran hai, flainaro o' kanar mean dakshini amarikiyoan ka, jaik keruak mean chapaloosoan ka, jan chivar evan luee aaukinklas mean parinagaroan ka. yah sthiti samaj ke vighatan ko pratibianbit karati hai. dakshini upanyasakar yahoodi lekhak, nigro kathakar evan bitanik lekhak sanskriti ki santrasi aantarbhoomi se apani astitvaparak anubhootiyoan ko mukharit karate haian. in lekhakoan ki sansthiti ko prakritivad vyakt karane mean asamarth tha. atev usane pratikatmakata, roomani athava bibhats sanasani, purakhyani evan adyaroopi tantujal, kalatmak athava g dab d kasidevale kshetroan mean pravesh kiya.

is kal ke upanyasoan mean nayak ki moolat: nishkalushata par bal hai, jo patitoddhari gun ke roop mean abhivyakt hua hai. nishkalush nayak kabhi to vidrohi shikar evan vidrohi balipashu ke roop mean niroopit kiya jata hai to kabhi ajanabi, bachcha, kishor, aparadhi, sant athava vidooshak ke roop mean. pratyek dasha mean nayak ki atmahasti evan patit samaj ke bich samadhan nahian ho pata aur is arth mean usaki diksha adhoori hi rah jati hai. vidroh, vidhvans athava atmahasti abhipushti par bal rahata hai. keruak, baroj, brasard, vidal eanv melar ke upanyasoan mean yahi sanrachana milati hai. belo, joans, bolj, melamood stairan evan makalarj ke upanyasoan mean vidrohi nayak ka aant shahadat, atmahatya athava parajay mean hota hai. yahi bat sailianjar, kapot, elisan evan danlevi ke upanyasoan par bhi lagoo hoti hai. sabhi nayak ko aparadhi sant athava hkhraost roop mean prastut karate haian. haks, kapot, naibakov evan oank aaunar ke kuchh upanyasoan mean viroopi pishach bhi yahi bhoomika ada karate haian. apane sapanoan ki duniyaan mean band viroopi patr samaj ka santrast shikar hone par shaitan ke roop mean parinat ho jata hai evan samaj ki sari hi samany manyataoan par aghat karata hai. in upanyasoan mean pratyakhyan paishachi vidroh ka roop dharan kar leta hai. amariki upanyasoan par yooropiyan astitvavad ka bhi prabhav p da hai. stairan, bolj, belo, jan apadaik, danlevi evan jan barth ke upanyasoan par yooropiy astitvavad ka prabhav spasht hai.

kavita-dvitiy mahayuddhottar kalin amariki kavita bit athava bitanik kaviyoan evan vidyochit kaviyoan ke parasparik sangharsh evan virodh ko lakshit karati hai. rabart loval ke shabdoan mean yah sangharsh anagadh evan parishkrit kavita ke bich parasparik virodh ka sangharsh hai. is vargikaran ke bavajood ham dekhate haian ki is 25 varsh ki avadhi mean anek bitanik kavi vidyochit ban ge tatha anek vidyochit kaviyoan ne bitanik shaili ko apanaya.

bitanik kaviyoan mean samaj ke prati vidroh ki bhavana hai. ve sabhi samajik sansthaoan ko ghrina ki drishti se dekhate haian aur apane lie atyantik vyaktigat svatantrata chahate haian. ve ati muktachhand mean manamane dhang se likhate haian. kavy unaki jivanashaili ka matr upaphal hai. ve madira, nasha, yaun prayogoan, evan madak dravyoan ki sahayata se bhavoddipan ki tikshnata ko badhane ka prayas karate haian evan nigro tatha jaiz sangitajnoan ke santsang mean bhagavaddarshan ki asha rakhate haian. apani kavitaoan ko ve viliyam karlas viliyamz athava jaik keruak ko samarpit karate haian. jain, bauddh, evan poorvi sanskriti ke taantrik athava 'asamajik' pakshoan se akarshit ye ne bohimiyaee 'avare' haian jo samaj ka virodh evan adimavad, moolavritti, shakti tatha rakt ki upasana karate haian. kavy mean bitanek shaili ke pramukh lekhak haian ailan gianjbarg, gregari korso tatha lareans faligeti. keneth reksarath, kenath paichan, rabart dankan, denis levaratov, charlz olsan, rabart krili jadasan krooj tatha jil arlovits ki kavitaoan par bhi bitanik shaili ka prabhav p da hai. bit kavita ki asannata evan oj manavi astitv ke nange charitr ko git deta hai.

gianjabarg ki 'hadal' (1956) narakavasi kavi dvara manushy ke narakiy astitv ka uchchhedan karati hai. unaki panktiyaan prem, athava krodharoopi ko de ki phatakar se adhunik jagath‌ ke sare santras evan vibhishika ka sparsh kar unase age brahmaandi y pavitrata tak pahuanchati haian. rajanitik, hatya, pagalapan, svapakavyasani, samaliangasanbandh, athava taantrik ya zen tatasthata ki vishayavastu ka bhar unaki panktiyaan sada hi vahan karane mean samarth nahian hoti. gianjbarg ki kavita ki sabase b di visheshata usaka rahasvadi tatv hai. usaka doosara prakashan 'kaidish' (1960) bhi inhian gunoan se yukt hai evan manushy ki sanvedana ko anubhoot yatharth ke simatank kshetr tak le jata hai. 'bat' shabd ke pray: tin arth die jate hai-(1)samaj ka nimnastar jahaan sansthaoan evan paripatiyoan ne dalit kavi ko daba rakha hai, (2)jaiz sangit ki lay evan tal jo kavyasangit ko utprerit karata hai, evan (3)bhagavaddarshan. gregari korso ke 'd vestal ledi an braital', 'gaisolin', tatha 'd haipi barthade aauv deth' mean chhand bit adarsh ke sannikat haian. vah jaiz ke visphotak prabhav evan hipstar nartakoan ki bhasha tatha shabdoan ka anukaran karata hai. larans phaligeti ke 'a k aauni' ailand aauv d maiand' mean gali kavy likhane ka prayas kiya gaya hai. kavita ko adhyayan kaksh ke bahar galiyoan mean laya gaya hai. any bit kaviyoan ke nam haian ge snaidar, phil velan evan maikel maklooar. bit kavita amarika ki aantarbhaum kavita hai. bit hi ke saman do any aantarbhom sanpraday bhi haian-blaik mauantan kavi evan nyoo park kavi. pahale sanpraday mean charlz olasan, rabart krili, rabart dankan evan janathan viliyamz ate haian. doosare sanpraday ke aantargat denis levartov, l ray joanz evan phraiank o' hara ate haian.

vidyochit kaviyoan mean sabase mahatvapoorn haian aparadhasvikari kavi rabart loval, snodagram, bradar aantoninus, silviya plaith evan theodor rethake. lail gleziyar ki kavitaean (archard park aand istaanbool, 1965, yoo too, 1969, d darvisij, 1970, evan vaisiz aauv daded, 1971) bhi isi shreni mean aeangi. rabart blaee, jemz rait, rabart keli, viliyam dafi evan jeremo radanabarg apane ko nitalabianbiy kati kahate haian. inake atirikt beriman, shvarts, jaral, shapiyaro, nemarov, ebarhart, kunits, viyarek, smith, vilbar evan diki bhi vidyochitt kavi haian. stri kaviyoan mean haz, sveansan, milar, makginali, bishap, rakesar, sekstan evan gardanar ke nam vishesh ullekhaniy haian. nigro kaviyoan mean vakar, gveandalin, dadsan, talsan, beand, joanz, oden, rivarz adi nigroan lokagitoan se prerana prapt karate haian.

kahana nahian hoga, pauand, tet, reansam, eliyat, aaudan evan kamiangz ke saman dvitiy mahayuddhottar 25 varsho mean navodit kaviyoan ne sukhyati abhi tak nahian prapt ki.

natak-dvitiy mahayuddhottar natay sahity mean atyantik prayog hue haian. upanyas evan kavita ke saman hi natak ne atmahasti ke bianboanpar bal diya hai. manaviy saty ko niroopit karane ke lie usane abhivyanjanavad athava atiyatharthavad ki sahayata li evan manav prakriti ke taral paksh par bal diya. arthar milar mean samajik sanveg ke hote hue bhi vaiyaktik man:sthiti ka santrast bodh hai. tenesi viliyamz mean sanskriti ki prachiroan par svapn evan ichchhaoan ka sashakt prahar hota hai. edavard albo evan jaik gelbar vivek ke simaantak kshetr se manushy ke aantarik gart evan aandhakar par drishtipat karate haian. in char natakakaroan ka sthan is samay sarvopari hai. vaise richardasan, hez, viliangam, vidal, phoot, gibsan, chayafski, naish, ianj, larants, aiandarsan, kapot, makalarz, mazel phragj, l aaugan, bret, shulbarg evan vok ne bhi is kal mean natak likhe haian.

arthar milar ke natakoan mean ek nee garima evan saragarbh hai jo manushy ki kayam rahane ki ichchhashakti, manaviy sanbandhoan ke ghanatv evan anubhooti ke vaichithhray se otaprot hai. milar ke anusar manushy apane samajik evan rajanitik vatavaran dvara yathochit aansh mean paribhashit nahian ho sakata, aur n hi vah avyakt shaktiyoan ke prabhav se hi achhoota rah sakata hai. milar ke patroan ki shakti vaphadari ke badhate hue vritt mean unake sapanoan mean nihit hai. papayukt sanveg tab tak sarthak nahian hota jab tak brihattar pratijnabaddhataean usaka khandan n karean. brihattar pratijnabaddhataean vyakti evan samaj donoan ke hi oopar haian. ye pravrittiyaan 'd main hoo haid al d lak' (1944); 'al maee sanz' (1947); 'daith av d selzaman' (1947); 'dakrasibl' (1953); 'vyoo phram d brij' (1955); evan 'a memari aauv too maandij' (1955); evan 'a memari aauv too maandij' (1955); mean spasht dekhi ja sakati haian.

tenesi viliyamz ke svapn, ichchhaean evan purakathaean milar ke yatharthiy, naitik evan samajik darshan ke viparit haian. viliyamz ke patr ekaki shikar, ajanabi, likapatit evan bhago de haian. unake natak bhayavah krity, hatya, kamavikriti, narabhakshan, shilapaharan evan sanasanidar bibhats ghatanaoan se bhare haian. jab balipashu patr aisi bhayavah astitvaparak sthitiyoan se hokar gujarata hai to usaki kalpana dharmikata ka sparsh karati hai. ye vishishtataean 'd glas minajshari (1945); 'a stritakar nemd dijaer' (1947); 'kamino reyal' (1953); 'arphayoos diseandiang' (1955); 'sadnli last samar' (1948); 'nait aauv di iguana' (1961); adi natakoan mean drishtigat haian.

tenesi viliyamz ne jin mool vrittiyoan par bal diya unhian ko adhar banakar edavard albi evan jaik gelbar ne amarika mean nirarthak astitv ke natayasahity ka nirman kiya. unaka jivanadarshan yah spasht dekhata hai ki manushy ne vartaman samajik sangathan evan sansthaoan ke karan apani niyati par apana niyantran kho diya hai. at: astitv nirarthak hai evan manushy apane aant ki asahay pratiksha kar raha hai. edavard albi ke 'di amarikan drim' (1959); 'd deth aauv besi smith' (1959); 'hooz aphred aauv varjiniya vulph' (1960); evan jaik gelbar ke 'd kanekshan' (1959); tatha 'di aipl' (1961) mean nirarthak astitv ke natayasahity ki pramukh vishishtataean spasht lakshit haian.

alochana-dvitiy mahayuddhottar 25 varshoan ko pray: hi amariki sahity mean alochana ka yug kaha jata hai. raiandal jaral ki 'poitri aiand di ej' (1953); karl shapiyaroan ki 'in dipheans aauv ignarans' (1960), narman melar ki 'adavartijmant phar maiselph' (1959); jemz baldavin ki 'nobadi noz maee nem' (1961); hofaman ki 'phraeediyanijm aand d litrari maiand (1945), braun ki 'laif ageanst deth' (1959); evan triliang ki 'phraid aand d kraisis aauv avar kalachar' (1955); ko paryapat saiddhaantik khyati mili. yuddhottar sankat evan vishvavyapi santras ke bhav ne alochakoan evan vicharakoan mean atmabodh ke bhar ko utprerit kiya tatha ve matr rasavad se kahian pare alochanatmak siddhaantoan ka niyojan karane ke lie badhy hue. adharagat samasyaoan se utprerit unake manasik prayas ne manushy ke apani atmahasti ke prati, samaj ke prati evan bhagavanh‌ ke prati sanbandhoan ka ek naya alochanatmak darshan prastut kiya.

is kal ki amariki alochana ka sabase mahanh‌ paksh hai puragathi alochana, jisaka is laghu avadhi mean hi vishvavyapi prabhav p da hai. puragathi alochana ke pramukh pravartak haian jozaph kaianpabel, phraiansis fargyusan, ven shumekar, filip vilarait evan rnthraap phraee. is alochanapravah par manovijnan, manovishleshan tatha manavashastr ka vyapak prabhav p da hai. puragathi alochana ke adharabhoot siddhaantoan ka sankshipt vivaran hi yahaan sanbhav hai.

sahity purakathaoan ke saman hi manushy ki akaankshaoan tatha du:svapnoan ka shabd prakshepan hai, atev sahityik vishvasanbhavanaoan athava shakyataoan ka kalpanik vishv hai. sahity vidhaoan, pratikoan, kathaoan evan prakaroan ka aantarbadh hai. vidhaean paanch hai: devakhyan vidha, adbhut vidha, uchchanukriti vidha, nimnanukriti vidha, evan vyangy vidha. vidhaoan ke samaroop hi paanch pratik hai: rahasyavadi ek athava chidan, puragathi adyaroop, raupik bianb apakeandriy nirdeshatmak chihn evan abhikeandriy aksharik moolabhav. kathaean char haian-kamadiy, adbhut katha, trasadiy katha hi sharadiy katha hai, evan vyangy hemanti hai. sahityaprakaroan ka vargikaran lay evan prastotamadhyam ke adhar par kiya gaya hai. is alochana ki sabase b di visheshata yah hai ki isake sare hi niyam svayan sahityanumanit haian vaise hi jaise bhautiki ke niyam vishv evan prakriti ke avalokan se hi prapt kie ge haian. puragathi alochana ne samiksha ko pahali bar ek kramanugat vikasonmukh shastr ke roop mean prastut kiya hai. anevali pidhiyaan tathy evan tark ki trutiyoan ko sudhar sakati haian.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

sanbandhit lekh

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