कर निर्धारण

'kar' se abhipray hai ki shasan dvara samaj mean vyavastha banae rakhane evan samast praja ki kalyanakari avashyakataoan ki poorti ke uddeshy se lagae ge anivary udgrahan. kar ki sarvapramukh visheshata yah hai ki usaka vyaktigat pratyavartan nahian hata, arthath‌ usake badale mean karadata ko vyakti se kuchh prapt karane ka adhikar nahian hota. vinimay ke bhav ka abhav kar ki kalpana ka sarvavishisht aang hai.

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kar ki vyakhya

'kar' ki isi paribhasha ke karan jal, vidyut, dak, tar adi vishisht sevaoan ko prapt karane ke lie di jane vali dhanarashi ko kar nahian kah sakate. vah mooly ki shreni mean gini jaegi. karan, ek to yah mooly dena pratyek ke lie anivary nahian aur doosare mooly evan usake dvara prapt seva mean vinimay ka bhav pratyaksh hi avalakshit hota hai. isi prakar shulk evan anujnapti bhi kar se bhinn hai. path shulk, grih shulk, jal shulk shvapach shulk adi pratyek vyakti ko dena anivary nahian. path, grih, jal, shvapach adi ka labh jo uthana chahate haian, unhean hi ye shulk dene p date haian. isi prakar madak padarthoan ka vikray karane ke lie jo anujnapti di jati hai, usake pratidan mean rajy kuchh dhanarashi leta hai. yahaan bhi anujnapti ki prapti ka etadarth pradatt dhanarashi se pratyaksh sanbandh hai. isilie anujnapti bhi kar ki paribhasha mean nahian ati. karan, kar kinhian sevaoan ka mooly ya shulk nahian hota. kar to vastav mean vyakti ke oopar shasan ki sarvabhaum satta evan shakti ka pratik hai. is shakti ke adhar par hi shasan vyakti par udgrahan aropit kar sakata hai, vyakti usaka anupatik pratyavartan nahian maang sakata. jin udgrahanoan ka anupatik pratyavartan ke lie shasan badhy ho, ve mooly, shulk ya anujnapti bhale hi hoan, par ve kar to nishchay hi nahian haian.

itihas

'kar' utana hi prachin hai jitana rajy. parantu kar ke roop evan ve siddhaant, jinake adhar par unaka nirdharan hota hai, samay-samay par parivartit hote rahe haian. ye saiddhaantik parivartan mukhyat: do karanoan se hue haian.

1. nagarikoan ke prati rajy ka kartavy
2. samaj ki badalati huee arthik vyavastha

nagarikoan ke prati rajy ka kartavy

pratyek samaj jis rajy ka nirman karata hai, us rajy se kuchh apekshaean bhi rakhata hai. rajy un apekshaoan ke anuroop hi us samaj ke prati apane kartavyoan ka nirdharan karata hai. ye apekshaean samay-samay par parivartit hoti rahati haian. udaharanasvaroop prachin ya madhy kal mean aur rajatantr se sanbandhit vyaktiyoan ko adhikadhik sukh dena hota tha. shasit varg ki sukh suvidhaoan ka prabandh karana rajy ka kartavy nahian tha. aise rajy nagarikoan ke samajik evan arthik jivan mean kam se kam hastakshep karane ki niti mean vishvas rakhate the. is siddhaant ke anusar spasht hai ki rajy ko adhik dhan ki avashyakata nahian p dati thi. at: adhik kar bhi nahian lagae jate the aur jo kar lagae bhi jate the, unake pichhe shasit varg ke kalyan ki bhavana nihit nahian hoti thi.

dhire-dhire samaj ke prati rajy ke kartavy ki kalpanaean badalane lagian aur yah vishvas kiya jane laga ki nagarikoan ko sukh, samriddhi aur sabhi prakar ki suvidhaean pradan karana rajy ka kartavy hai. in kalpanaoan ka poorn vikasit roop lok kalyanakari rajy ka adarsh hai. yahaan yah bata dena avashyak hai ki lok kalyanakari rajy ki sthapana ki kalpana prajatantravadi shasanatantr ke avirbhav ka parinam hai. is adarsh ko karyanvit karane ke lie spashtat: rajy ko adhik dhan ki avashyakata huee. parinamasvaroop n keval karoan ki sankhya mean vriddhi avashyak ho gee, pratyut is prakar ke karoan ki khoj bhi karani p di jo samaj ke dhani evan nirdhan, donoan hi vargoan se, unaki kshamata ke anusar kar lete hue bhi unhean saman samajik evan arthik star par lane mean saphal hoan. ayakar, vyayakar, mrityukar, sanpattikar, danakar adi isi khoj ke parinam haian.

samaj ki badalati huee arthik vyavastha

kar pranali ki rooparekha par samaj ki arthik sthiti ki sidha prabhav p data hai. krishi pradhan rajy mean spashtat: adhikatar kar krishi karm karane vale nagarikoan se hi vasool kie jaeange. yahi karan hai ki samanti yug mean bhoorajasv kar pranali ka mukhy adhar tha. madhyakalin yoorop mean adhikatar deshoan mean krishi ke sthan par vyapar ki pradhanata ho gee. parinamasvaroop bhoorajasv ke atirikt ayat, niryat kar evan path shulk ka avirbhav hua. audyogik kraanti ka praranbh hone ke bad kar pranali ke mukhy adhar udyog sanbandhi kar ho ge. vibhinn prakar ke utpadanashulk evan kray-vikray-kar isi audyogik arthik pranali ki den haian.

prakar

karoan ke anek prakar haian, parantu sarvapramukh vargikaran pratyaksh evan paroksh karoan ka hai. pratyaksh kar ve haian jo jis vyakti par lagae jaean, usake dvara inake bhar ka sthanaantaran n ho sake. paroksh kar pratyaksh mean to ek vyakti par lagae jate haian, parantu vah us kar ko ekatr karane ka madhyam matr hota hai, kyoanki us kar ke bhar ko svayan vahan nahian karata varanh turant usaka sthanaantaran kar deta hai. is prakar pratyaksh evan paroksh kar ke vargikaran ka mukhy adhar sthanaantaran ki kshamata hai. yadi kar bhar sthanaantarit kiya ja sakata hai to vah kar paroksh hai. karan, vah vyakti jis par kar bhar sthanaantarit kiya gaya hai, yah nahian janata ki vah paroksh roop mean kar de raha hai. isake vipariti yadi kar bhar sthanaantarit nahian kiya ja sakata to spasht hai ki vahi vyakti, jis par kar aropit kiya gaya hai, us kar ko dega aur janega ki vah kar de raha hai. udaharanarth ayakar, vyayakar, danakar, sanpattikar, mrityukar adi pratyaksh kar haian, kyoanki jis vyakti par ye kar aropit kie jate haian, vah poornat: doosaroan se inhean kisi bhi roop mean vasool nahian kar sakata. isake viparit utpadan shulk, kray-vikray-shulk, ayat-niryat-kar adi paroksh kar haian. jin vyapariyoan par ye aropit hote haian, ve mooly ke sath-sath apane grahakoan se inako bhi vasool lete haian.

pratyaksh kar ke sthanaantarit n ho sakane ke gun ka parinam yah hai ki shasan yadi chahe to unaka upayog kis varg vishesh par kar bhar adhik ya kam karane mean kar sakata hai. paroksh kar ka upayog is roop mean nahian ho sakata, kyoanki barabar sthanaantarit hote rahane ke karan yah anuman lagana kathin hai ki aantatogatva us kar ka bhar kisane adhik vahan kiya. yahi karan hai ki kisi bhi lok kalyanakari shasan ki kar pranali mean pratyaksh karoan ko adhik mahatv diya jata hai aur jahaan tak sanbhav hota hai, paroksh karoan ko kam se kam rakhane ka hi prayas kiya jata hai; kyoanki pratyaksh karoan ke dvara hi dhanik varg se, madhyam evan nimn varg ki tulana mean, adhik dhanarashi udgrahit ho sakati hai aur kar pranali ko pragatishil roop dete hue samast nagarikoan ki samajik evan arthik samata ke adarsh ki upalabdhi sanbhav hai. isaka yah tatpary nahian hai ki paroksh karoan ka koee upayog nahian hai. vastav mean rajy ke janonnati ke prayasoan mean adhikadhik dhan ki avashyakata hoti hai. yah samast dhan pratyaksh karoan se prapt nahian ho sakata. at: paroksh karoan ka sahara lena hi p data hai, vishesh roop se isalie ki unake dvara dhan prapti bhi ho jati hai, sath hi paroksh roop mean hone ke karan udgrahan ke prati svabhavik virodh ki prakriya bhi tivr nahian ho pati.

any vargikaran

karoan ke any vargikaran vishesh mahatvapoorn nahian haian. sankshep mean ve is prakar haian-

1. moolyadhar ya nap taul ke adhar par-kuchh vastuoan par kar mooly ke pratishat par lagata hai, kuchh par unaki taul ke adhar par; jaise ek rupaya prati kilogram, ya 30 ne paise prati gaj.
2. avashyakata ke adhar par, jaise samany aur apatkalin kar
3. sthayatvi ke adhar par, jaise sthayi aur apatkalin kar; udaharanarth, atirikt labhakar, vyaparik labhakar adi, jo yuddhakal mean bharat mean bhi lagae ge the.
4. kshetradhikar ke adhar par, jaise, rashtriy, praantiy tatha sthaniy.
5. anupatik adhar par, is adhar par karoan ko tin bhagoan mean vibhajit kiya ja sakata hai- anupatik, pragatishil evan pratigami.

anupatik kar use kahate haian jo vyakti ki kar-dey-kshamata ki chianta kie bina pratyek vyakti se saman anupat se liya jata hai.

pragatishil kar use kahate haian jo kar-dey-kshamata ko dhyan mean rakhate hue adhik kshamatavaloan se adhik aur kam kshamata valoan se kam liya jae. udaharanasvarooph ayakar, vyayakar adi.

pratigami kar pragatishil ka ulta hota hai. arthath‌ lagoan ki kar dene ki kshamata kam hai, unhean adhik aur jinaki kshamata adhik hai, unhean kam kar dena hota hai. fraans mean san 1781 ki rajyakraanti se poorv isi prakar ki kar pranali vidyaman thi, jahaan amir samantoan ko kar 'nahian' ke barabar dena hota tha, jabaki nirdhan krishak kar bhar se dabe hue the. ajakal is prakar ke pratigami kar ka shuddh udaharan prapt hona kathin hai, parantu vastav mean aantim prabhav ki drishti se sare hi paroksh kar pratigami hote haian. is drishti se sabhi anupatik kar bhi pratigami ki shreni mean hi a jate haian. isalie karoan ka vastavik vargikaran anupatik, pragatishil aur pratigami ke roop mean nahian apitu pragatishil aur pratigami ke hi roop mean hona chahie.

kar nirdharan ke adarsh

kar nirdharan rajy dvara hota hai. at: kis rajy mean kar nirdharan kaisa ho, yah is bat par nirbhar karega ki us rajy ke adarsh kya haian. yadi rajy svayan ko nagarikoan ki shaanti, vyavastha aur desh ki suraksha matr ke lie uttaradayi samajhata hai to spasht hai ki aisa rajy desh ki arthik evan samajik sthiti mean parivartan lane ki tanik bhi utsukata n dikhaega. aise rajy mean kar rajy ke lie dhan ekatrit karane ke sadhan matr hoange, unaka any koee uddeshy nahian hoga. yah bat doosari hai ki jo kar lagae jaean, ve svayan apani pratikriya dvara samaj ke jivan par ek vishesh prakar ka prabhav chho d jaean, par rajy ka uddeshy kar pranali dvara yah prabhav utpann karana nahian tha. rajy ke kartavyadarsh ki yah vicharadhara ab bahut purani ho chuki hai. 19vian tatha 20vian sadi ke poorvardh mean pashchaty deshoan mean audyogik kraanti ke karan jab arthik pragati tivrata se hi ho rahi thi, us samay un rajyoan ki kar pranali ka mukhy uddeshy utpadan mean sahayata pradan karana tha.

rajanitik evan arthik chiantan mean parivartan

pratham mahayuddh ke pashchath‌ sabhi deshoan ke rajanitik evan arthik chiantan mean ek mahatvapoorn parivartan aya. abhi tak adhikatar pashchaty deshoan mean arthavidoan evan rajanitijnoan ka dhyan keval rashtr ki sanpatti badhane mean tha. us badhati huee rashtr ki sanpada ka rashtr ke vibhinn vargoan mean vitaran kis prakar ho raha hai, is or rajy ka dhyan bilkul nahian tha. isaka parinam yah hua ki pooanjivadi arthaniti ke karan adhikatar deshoan mean vibhinn vargoan mean asamanata evan vishamata badhati gee. sath hi, chooanki pooanjivadiyoan ka mukhy uddeshy labh ki prapti tha, isalie jab kabhi unake labhaansh mean kami hone ka aandesha hota tha, vah utpadan se ekadam hath khianch lete the aur utpadit vastuoan ko jala dene ya samudr tal mean duba dene mean bhi sankoch nahian karate the. 1930 mean jab vishvavyapi mahanh‌ arthik sankat utpann hua, tab udyogapatiyoan ne apani miloan mean tale dal die. rashtroan ka utpadan ekadam gir gaya, bhayanak bekari charoan or phail gee. arthik vitaran ki vishamata ke karan rashtr ki sanpatti ka adhikaansh udyogapatiyoan ke pas tha, at: unhean adhik kasht nahian uthana p da. parantu madhyam evan nimn varg ke log mar mite. in sab paristhitiyoan ko dekhakar samajashastriyoan evan arthavidoan ne apani virodh ki avaj ooanchi ki aur kaha ki rajy ko svayan aisi sthiti mean arthik jivan mean pran dalane ka prayas karana chahie evan bekari tatha vitaran ki samasya ko sada ke lie door kar dena chahie.

arthaniti ka uddeshy

isake parinamasvaroop lok kalyanakari rajy ki bhavana ka pradurbhav hua aur rajy ke nagarikoan ke prati kartavyadarsh parivartit hue. rajy ki arthaniti ko, kar niti jisaka ek aantarang bhag hai, ek nee disha mili aur arthaniti ka mukhy uddeshy ho gaya-

1. sab kary kar sakane yogy vyaktiyoan ko kary dilana
2. sanpoorn samaj ki sukh samriddhi ko adhikatam karana

ajakal ke sabhy kahe jane vale sabhi rashtroan ki arthaniti ke yahi do adarsh haian. in adarshoan ki poorti ke lie jahaan yah avashyak hai ki rashtr ki ay adhik se adhik adhikatar hoti chale, vahaan yah bhi avashyak hai ki yah badhati huee rashtr sanpada sab vargoan mean saman roop vitarit ho. yahi karan hai ki jahaan ajakal ki kar pranaliyoan mean utpadan ko protsahan dene ki vyavastha hoti hai, vahaan sath hi is bat ka bhi prabandh hota hai ki dhanik vargoan se adhikadhik dhan kar dvara lekar rajy usaka vyay lokamangal ke karyoan mean kare, jisaka adhik labh un vargoan ko prapt ho, jinase ya to kam kar liya jata hai ya bilkul hi nahian liya jata.

suvyavasthit kar pranali

aisi suvyavasthit kar pranali ka nirman saral nahian hai, jo rajy ke adarshoan ko poorn roop se karyanvit kar sake. arthashastriyoan ne suvyavasthit kar pranali ki kuchh visheshataoan ka ullekh kiya hai. ve is prakar haian-

1. lachilapan - kar vyavastha aisi ho ki usase avashyakatanusar dhanarashi ka udgrahan kam ya adhik kiya ja sake
2. sthayitv - kar pranali mean shighr parivartan nahian hone chahiean. usamean sthayatvi ka aansh rahana avashyak hai anyatha kar prashasan mean bahut kathinaiyaan hoangi
3. saraly - kar vyavastha itani saral ho ki janasadharan sugamata se use samajh sake aur apane kar bhar ka anuman laga sakean
4. samanata tatha nyayaparata - yah nitaant avashyak hai ki koee nagarik yah n anubhav kare ki kisi varg ke sath pakshapat kiya ja raha hai aur svayan usake sath anyay ya asamanata ka vyavahar kiya gaya hai. yadi kar vyavastha mean varg vishesh ke sath pakshapat hoga to nishchay hi samaj mean ashaanti hogi.
5. mitavyayata - kar pranali is prakar ki ho ki kar nirdharan karane evan ekatr karane mean kam se kam vyay ho.

sankshep mean kisi bhi achchhi kar vyavastha mean kar is prakar lagae jaean ki ve utpadan mean badhak n hoan, unake vasool karane mean kam se kam vyay ho, unake karan nagarikoan mean virodh ki bhavana n udit ho aur samajik durgunoan ka uday n ho. yadi samajik hit ka protsahan kar vyavastha ke dvara kiya jata hai, nagarikoan ko yah vishvas ho jata hai ki kar vyavastha nyayasangat hai aur usake karan utpadan kshamata badhati hai aur bekari ki samasya ka nirakaran hota hai, to aisi adarsh vyavastha mean nagarik ko kar dene mean bhi utsah hota hai.

kar prashasan ka mahatv

kar vyavastha mean kar prashasan ka mahatv bahut b da hai. kar prashasan ke bure hone par karoan ke prati janata mean ghrina aur krodh ki bhavana utpann hoti hai. isalie yah kaha gaya hai ki kar vyavastha ke achchhe ya bure hane mean vidhayika ka hath 10 pratishat aur prashasan ka 90 pratishat rahata hai. kar nirdharan ki tin sthitiyaan hoti haian. pahali sthiti mean vidhayika kar ke niyam aur adhiniyam banati hai, jinake adhar par prashasan karanirdharan karata hai. doosari sthiti kar nirdharan ki hai, jisamean prashasak vyaktivishesh ki sthiti par dhyan dete hue vidhayika dvara nishchit kie hue niyamoan evan adhiniyamoan ke adhar par us vyakti vishesh ka kar bhar nirdharit karate haian. tisari sthiti kar ka udgrahan karane ki hai, jisamean nirdharit kar ko prashasan vyakti se udgrahit karata hai. kar n dene ki sthiti mean kar pranali mean dand ka vidhan hota hai. dand adhikatar arthik hota hai, kiantu kinhian vishesh paristhitiyoan mean karagar bandi bana die jane ka bhi vidhan hota hai. kar nirdharan evan karodgrahan donoan prashasan ka uttaradayitv hai. in karyoan ka sucharu, nirbhik evan nyayapoorn dhang se sanpadan karane mean hi prashasan ki kushalata hai.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh