प्रयोग:शिल्पी
nabhik (aangrezi bhasha- Nucleus) atyant sookshm akar ka hota hai aur paramanu ke keandr mean sthit hota hai. yah dhan aveshit hota hai tatha nabhik mean paramanu ka lagabhag samast dravyaman keandrit hota hai.
nabhik ke astittv
nabhik ke astittv aur isake gunoan ka pata lagane ka shrey vikhyat vaijnanik radaraford ko jata hai. radaraford ki prayogashala mean vighatan se prapt ailpha (Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\alpha } ) kanoan par vistrit prayog ho rahe the. in prayogoan mean yah paya gaya ki dhatu ki patali panniyoan mean se hokar jab ailpha kan jate haian tab ve apane marg se bahut adhik vichalit ho jate haian. us samay tak yah mana jata tha ki paramanu mean dhan aur rrin avesh samaroop se vitarit hote haian. is dharana ke adhar par t aaumasan ne ailpha kanoan ke prakirnan ki ganana ki thi, parantu prayogatmak roop se prakirnan ka jo man prapt hota tha vah ganana dvara prapt man se kee koti adhik tha. is vaishamy ko spasht karane ke lie radaraford ne 1911 ee. mean naya sidvant pratipadit kiya, jisase nabhik ka astittv spasht hua. radaraford ne yah mana ki paramanu mean dhan avesh samaroop se vitarit nahian hota, balki usake keandr par atyant sookshm ayatan mean hi simit hota hai. paramanu ke keandr mean sthit atyant sookshm aur dhanaveshit bhag ko nabhik kaha jata hai. paramanu ka samast dravyaman usake dhan aveshoan mean nihit hota hai aur radaraford ke anusar samast dhan avesh nabhik mean keandrit hote haian, at: spasht hai ki paramanu ka samast dravyaman usake nabhik mean keandrit hota hai. is prakar mote roop mean radaraford ne 1911 ee. mean nabhik ka astittv siddh kiya.
nabhik ka akar
kisi paramanu ke nabhik ka vyas us paramanu ke vyas ki apeksha lagabhag das hajar guna chhota hota hai. radaraford ne 1911 ee. mean gaigar aur marsaden ke prayogoan ke adhar par nishkarsh nikala ki nabhik ka ardhavyas 10-12 se bhi kam hi hona chahie. kee prayogoan ke adhar par evan saiddhaantik vivechana ke anusar yah paya jata hai ki kisi nabhik ka ardhavyas 'r' nimnalikhit sootr se jnat hota hai :
(Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {r}} = Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {r}} ο Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {A}} 1/3)
yahaan A us nabhik mean nyootr aaunoan tatha prot aaunoan ki kul sankhya hai aur Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {r}} ο ek sthiraank hai, jise ek nabhikanu ka ardhavyas mana ja sakata hai. nabhik ka ardhavyas nyootr aaun prakirnan, ailpha utsarjan, samasthanik prabhav aur ilektr aaun prakirnan adi, kee prayogoan dvara jnat kiya ja sakata hai. nabhik ka akar jnat karane mean ya to nabhik ke avesh vitaran ka akar jnat kiya jata hai, athava nabhikiy baloan ke adhar par ardhavyas jnat hota hai. vidyutiy baloan evan nabhikiy baloan ke adhar par ardhavyas jnat hota hai. vidyutiy baloan evan nabhikiy baloan ke adhar par jnat kie ge Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {r}} ο ke man mean kuchh aantar ata hai. phir bhi Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {r}} ο ke lie 1.2 x 10-13 sentimitar liya ja sakata hai.
nabhik ka avesh
ailpha kan jab dhatu ki patali panni mean se jate haian tab ve nabhik dvara pratikarshit hote haian. isake phalasvaroop ve apane marg se vichalit ho jate haian. radaraford ne is pratikarshan bal ki ganana ki tatha vichalan kon ka man jnat kiya. usake samikaran se nabhik ka avesh jnat kiya ja sakata hai. dhanaveshit ailpha kan nabhik se pratikarshit hota hai. isase yah nishkarsh nikala ja sakata hai ki nabhik par dhan avesh hota hai. isase yah nishkarsh nikala ja sakata hai ki nabhik par dhan avesh hota hai. vor ke paramanu pratiroop ke anusar kisi paramanu mean se nikalane vali eks kiranoan ki avriti nimn sootr se jnat hoti hai:
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\upsilon } = Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {Z}} 2 Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\mathrm {R}} Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): \left({\frac {1}{n_{1}^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{n_{2}^{2}}}\right)
isamean R ek sthiraank aur Z nabhik par dhan avesh ki matra hai. Z ko paramanu sankhya bhi kahate haian. yah nabhik mean upasthit prot aaunoan ki sankhya vyakt karata hai. sankraman n1 aur n2 kakshaoan ke bich hote haian. yadi bhitar ki or parikrama karate hue any ilektr aaunoan dvara avaranan (screening) ki bhi ganana ki jae to prabhavi avesh Z se kam hota hai. mozale ne Ka shreni ki eks kiranoan ke lie
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\sqrt {\upsilon }} = sthiraank x (Z - 1)
tatha LFailed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\alpha } shreni ki eksakiranoan ke lie
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\sqrt {\upsilon }} = sthiraank x (Z - 7.4)
mauzale ke prayogoan dvara vibhinn tatvoan ki Ka tatha La shreni ki eks kiranoan ki avritti jnat karake vibhinn tatvoan ke lie Z, arthath nabhik par avesh ka man shuddhatapoorvak jnat kiya gaya.
nabhik ka koniy sanveg
nabhik ke pratyek prot aaun aur nyootr aaun ka apane aksh par ghoomane ke karan koniy sanveg Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://api.formulasearchengine.com/v1/":): {\frac {1}{2}} h/2p hota hai. isake atirikt, pratyek prot aaun aur nyootr aaun ka apane kaksh (orbit) par ghoomane ke karan ek koniy sanveg 1 h/2p hota hai, jahaan 1 kakshiy kvaantam sankhya tatha plaank sthiraank hai. sabhi nyootr aaunoan aur prot aaunoan ke koniy sanveg milakar nabhik ka koniy sanveg hota hai. nabhik mean nyootr aaun aur prot aaun apani kaksha tatha apane aksh par ghoornan is prakar sanmajit karate haian ki pratyek do prot aaun tatha pratyek do nyootr aaun ke koniy sanveg milakar paraspar shoony ho jate haian. yadi nyootr aaunoan athava prot aaunoan ki sankhya visham ho, to do do ke yugm banane par ek shesh rah jata hai, jisaka koniy sanveg hi nabhik ka parinami sanveg hota hai. visham paramanubharavale nabhik ka koniy sanveg sadaiv
h/2p ke gunan ke barabar hota hai. sam paramanubharavale nabhik do prakar ke ho sakate haian : (k) vah jisamean prot aaunoan aur nyootr aaunoan, donoan ki sankhya sam hai. is sthiti mean samast nyootr aaun yugmoan mean sanmajit ho jo haian aur une keniy sanveg shoony ho jate haian. isi prakar samast prot aaunoan ka parinami koniy sanveg shoony ho jata hai. is karan sam prot aaun ka parinami koniy sanveg shoony ho jata hai. is karan sam prot aaun aur sam nyootr aaunavale samast nabhikoan ka koniy sanveg shoony hota hai. (kh) vah jisamean prot aaunoan aur nyootr aaunoan, donoan ki hi sankhya visham hai. isamean ek prot aaun aur ek nyootr aaun shesh raheange, jinake koniy sanveg
h/2pke gunaj hoange. in do koniy sanvegoan ka yog h/2pka poorn saankhyik gunan hota hai. atev samast visham prot aaun sam nyootr aaun nabhikoan ka koniy sanveg h/2pka poorn saankhyik gunan hota hai.
chitr 2. paramanu ki rachana atyant sookshm akar ke keandrasth nabhik (na) ke chaturdikh ilektran (i) ghoomate haian. chuanbakiy aghoorn - prot aaun jab apane aksh par ghoornan karata hai, athava kisi kaksha mean ghoomata hai, tab usaka aghoorni dhan avesh vrittakar vidyudvara ke tuly ho jata hai. isake karan ghoornan aksh ki disha mean chuanbakiy kshetr utpann hota hai. isaka man chuanbakiy aghoorn dvara vyakt kiya jata hai. nabhikiy chuanbakiy aghoorn ki ikaee 'nabhikiy maiganet aaun' kahalati hai. prot aaun ki kaksha par ghoornan ke karan jo chuanbakiy aghoorn hota hai usaka man kakshiy kvaantam sankhya 1 par nirbhar karata hai. pratyek do prot aaunoan ke koniy sanveg milakar shoony ho jane ke karan unake chuanbakiy aghoorn bhi shoony ho jate hai. aksh par nyootr aaun ke ghoornan ke karan rrinatmak chuanbakiy aghoorn hota hai, parantu kaksha mean ghoomane se chuanbakiy aghoorn nahian hota. nyootr aaunoan ka chuanbakiy aghoorn bhi yugmoan mean sanmajit hokar shoony ho jata hai aur keval akele bache nayootr aaun ka chuanbakiy aghoorn prabhavi hota hai. isase spasht hai ki shoony koniy savegavali nabhik ka chuanbakiy aghoorn sadaiv shoony hota hai. visham prot aaun vale nabhik ka chuanbakiy aghoorn prot aaun ki 1 sankhya par nirbhar karata hai, parantu visham nyootr aaunavale nabhik ka chuanbakiy aghoorn nyootr aaun ki 1 sankhya par nirbhar nahian karata. nabhikiy sanrachana (structure) - nyootr aaun ke avishkar ke bad se yah mana jata hai ki nabhik nyootr aaun aur prot aaun se milakar bane haian. nabhik mean prot aaunoan ki sankhya Z se vyakt ki jati hai. yah paramanusankhya ke barabar hoti hai. nabhik mean nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya itani hoti hai ki nyootr aaunoan aur prot aaunoan ki sankhya milakar paramanubhar ke barabar ho jae. is prakar paramanusankhya Z aur paramanubhar A vale nabhik mean Z prot aaun aur AZ nyootr aaun hote yahaan haian. nabhik ko
se vyakt karate haian. X us tatv ka rasayanik sanket hai, Z paramanu sankhya tatha A paramanubhar hai. halke nabhikoan (A£ 20) mean pray: prot aaunoan aur nyootr aaunoan kian sankhya barabar hotian hai. jyoan jyoan nabhik bhari hota jata hai prot aaunoan se nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya adhik hoti jati hai. yooreniyam jaise bhari tatv, ke nabhik mean nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya prot aaunoan ki sankhya se lagabhag dyodhi hoti hai. kisi nabhik mean prot aaunoan aur nyootr aaunoan ka anupat aichchhik nahian hota. inaka nishchit anupat hone par hi nabhik sthayi hota hai. pray: ek hi tatv ke vibhinn nabhikoan mean prot aaunoan ki sankhya vahi rahane par bhi nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya mean kuchh aantar ho jata hai. udaharan ke lie tin (Sn) ke sabhi nabhikoan mean prot aaunoan ki sankhya to 50 hi hoti hai, parantu nyootr aaun 52 se lekar 74 tak ho sakate haian. aise nabhik, jinamean prot aaunoan ki sankhya vahi ho parantu nyootr aaunaan ki sankhya bhinn ho, samasthanik (isotope) kahalate haian. ise atirikt do bhinn tatvoan ke nabhik aise bhi ho sakate haian jinamean se ek ke prot aaunoan ki sankhya doosare ke nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya ke barabar hoti hai. inhean pratipanabhik (mirror nuclei) kahate haian. jaise 1H3 aur 2He3 mean kramash: ek prot aaun, do nyootr aaun aur do prot aaun tatha ek nyootr aaun haian. nabhikiy bal - nabhik ke samast prot aaun ek doosare ko pratikarshit karate haian. nyootr aaun anaveshit hote haian, at: unapar vidyutiy bal nahian lagata. vidyutiy aveshoan ke karan nabhik mean pratikarshan bal lagata hai. nabhik ke samast nyootr aaun aur prot aaun ek akarshak bal ke karan ekatrit rahate haian. ise nabhikiy bal kahate haian. nabhikiy bal ki prakriti abhi tak poornataya spasht nahian hai. is bal ke kul gun jnat haian, jo nimnalikhit haian: 1. ye bal keval 10- 13 seanmi. tak hi prabhavi hote hai. is karan nyootr aaun athava prot aaun apane nikatasth nyootr aaun athava prot aaun ko hi akarshit karata hai. 2. nabhikiy bal avesh samamit hota hai, arthath yah vidyutiy avesh par nirbhar nahian karata. phalasvaroop yah prot aaun prot aaun, prot aaun-nyootr aaun aur nyootr aaun-nyootr aaun ke bich barabar man ka hota hai. 3. yah teansar (tensor) bal hai, arthath yah keval do kanoan ke bich ki doori par hi nirbhar nahian karata balki unako milanevali rekha aur kanoan ke koniy sanveg ke bich ke kon par bhi nirbhar karata hai. 4. yah santritp bal hai, arthath yah keval kuchh nabhikanuoan ke bich hi lagata hai. unhian nabhikanuoan ke bich yah bal lagata hai jinaki '1' kvaantam sankhya saman hoti hai. ise vinimay bal bhi kaha jata hai. bandhan oorja - pratyek nabhik ka dravyaman usake aandar sthit nyootr aaunoan aur prot aaunoan ke dravyaman ke yeg se kam hota hai. yadi kisi nabhik mean Z prot aaun aur N nyootr aaun haian to Mnuc=ZMp+NMn- D M hota hai. yahaan Mnuc nabhik ka dravyaman tatha Mp aur Mn kramash: prot aaun aur nyootr aaun ke dravyaman hai. DM ko dravyamananyoonata kahate haian. ainstain ne sapekshavad ke siddhaant se yah siddh kiya hai ki dravyaman aur oorja ek doosare mean parivartit kie ja sakate haian. oorja aur dravyaman ka sanbandh nimn hai : E=mc2 yahaan m dravyaman, c prakash ka veg aur E oorja hai. isake anusar jab kuchh prot aaun aur nyootr aaun ekatrit hokar nabhik banate haian tab kuchh dravyaman nyoonata hoti hai, jo oorja ke roop mean svatantr ho jati hai. udaharan ke lie, ek prot aaun aur ek nyootr aaun milakar jab dyooteran banate haian to 2.22 M e V (mllion electron volt) oorja svatantr hoti hai. yahi dyooteran ki bandhanoorja hoti hai. yadi dyooter aaun ko usake avayavoan nayootr aaun aur prot aaun mean vibhakt karana chahean, to kam se kam 2.22 MeV oorja avashyak hogi. any nabhikoan ki bandhan oorja lagabhag 8 MeV hoti hai. vibhinn paramanubhar ke nabhikoan ke lie yah man alag alag hota hai. paramanubhar A£ 20 tak prati nabhikanu bandhan oorjaan 8 MeV se kam hoti hai. A=20 se A=180 tak yah 8 MeV se adhik hoti hai tatha A£ 180 ke lie yah phir ghatane lagati hai. isase jnat hota hai ki jab nabhik itana bhari ho jata hai ki A >> 180 ho jae, tab vah asthayi hone lagata hai. A>208 par nabhik ka sthayitv itana kam ho jata hai ki usamean se nabhikavighatan ke karan ailpha kan ityadi apane ap nikalane lagate haian. nabhikiy abhikriya - nabhikiy tatvaantaran (transmutation) ka pahala prayog radaraford ki prayogashala mean hua. jab nabhikiy vighatan se prapt uchch oorjavale kan naitrojan gais mean chho de ge tab usamean se prot aaun prapt hue. blaiket ne isi prayog ko vilasan meghakaksh ki sahayata se duharaya. isake adhar par yah nishkarsh nikala ki naitrojan ka nabhik aauksijan ke nabhik mean tatvaantarit ho jata hai : 2H4+7N14® 8O17+1H1 isi prakar ki any abhikriyaean, jinamean ek nabhik ka doosare nabhik mean tatvaantaran hota hai, nabhakiy abhikriyaean kahalati haian. nabhikiy abhikriyaoan ke lie nyootr aaunoan athava adhik oorjavale aveshit kanoan tatha prot aaunoan, dyooteranoan evan ailpha kanoan ka upayog kiya jata hai. nabhik par dhan avesh hota hai, at: usake koolam (Coulomb) pratikarshan ke viparit, nabhik tak pahuanchane ke lie dhan aveshit kanoan mean adhik oorja vaanchhaniy hai, jabaki nyootr aaun yadi mand hoan tab bhi ve anaveshit hone ke karan nabhik tak pahuanch jate haian. niche kuchh any abhikriyaoan ke udaharan die ge haian : 1. jab 5B10 mean nyootr aaun aveshit hota hai, tab ailpha kan aur lithiyam utpann hote haian. sootr roop mean 5B10+n® 2He4+3Li7 2. jab prot aaun lithiyam ke nabhik se takarata hai tab to ailpha karan nikalate haian, arthath: 1H1+3Li7® 2He4+2He4 nabhikiy abhikriya ko samajhane ke lie bor ne ek siddhaant pratipadit kiya, jisake anusar jab koee kan ek nabhik se takarata hai tab usamean avashoshit ho jata hai. is prakar ek yaugik nabhik banata hai jo bahut uttejit avastha mean hota hai. ab vah kisi bhi prakar uttejit avastha ki oorja nikalana chahata hai. yadi yah yaugik nabhik asthayi ho to usamean se ek kan nikal p data hai, anyatha keval gama kiranean nikalati haian. udaharanasvaroop, abhikriya (2) take lithiyam mean prot aaun avashoshit ho jata hai to beriliyam banata hai, jo asthayi hai. yah ailpha kanoan mean vibhakt ho jata hai. bor ke anusar yah abhikriya nimn roop mean likhi jaegi : 3Li7+1H1® 4Be8® 2He4+2He4 nabhikiy vikhandan - yadi kisi bhari asthayi nabhik, udaharanasvaroop yooreniyam ke nabhik (A=225), ko do barabar bhagoan mean vikhandit kar diya jae to pratyek bhag ke lie A» 120 ho jata hai. yadyapi donoan khandoan ko milakar nyootr aaunoan aur protanoan ki sankhya utani hi rahati hai, tathapi pratyek khand ka sthayitv badh jata hai. phalasvaroop jab ek bhari nabhik do lagabhag barabar khandoan mean vibhajit hota hai, tab oorja svatantr hoti hai. ek yooreniyam ke vikhandan mean lagabhag 200 MeV oorja svatantr hoti hai. yooreniyam ke tin samasthanik U234, U235 aur U238 prakritik roop mean pae jate haian. prakritik yooreniyam mean adhikaansh bhag U238 ka hi hota hai. vikhandan ke lie U235 aur U238 mahatvapoorn haian. vikhandan ke lie inapar nyootr aaun ki bauchhar ki jati hai, jisase ye nyootr aaun avashoshit kar lean. U238 ke vikhandan ke lie yah avashyak hai ki isamean avashoshit kie janevale nyootr aaunoan ki oorja 1 MeV ya isase adhik ho, parantu U235 ka vikhandan atyant kam oorjavale nyootr aaunoan se bhi ho sakata hai. isalie U235 ki upadeyata adhik hai. jab kisi yooreniyam nabhik ka vikhandan hota hai, tab usamean se ausat mean ~ 3 nyootr aaun bhi nikalate haian. pratyek vikhandan mean ek nyootr aaun avashoshit hota hai aur ~ 3 ne nyootr aaun nikalate haian, arthath 2 nyootr aaunoan ki vriddhi hoti hai. yadi pratyek nyootr aaun ek nabhik ka vikhandan karane mean saphal ho sake, to shighr hi bahut adhik nyootr aaun utpann hone lageange aur prati sekand vikhandit honevale nabhikoan ki sankhya badhati hi jaegi. at: ek bar aranbh hone par vikhandan abhikriya tab tak svat: chalati rahegi jab tak ki yooreniyam ke nabhik vikhandan ke lie prapy haian. ise shriankhala abhikriya kahate haian. shriankhala abhikriya do prakar ki
chitr 3. nabhik ka vikhandan chhote kale gole nyootr aaun ko vyakt karate haian. jab ye nyootr aaun yooreniyam ke nabhik (yoo) se takarate haian, to yooreniyam nabhik do bhagoan maian vibhakt ho jata hai aur ausatan tin ne nyootr aaun nikalate haian. vibhakt khand rekhaankit ardh goloan se vyakt kie ge haian. ho sakati hai : (1) aniyantrit shriankhala abhikriya tatha (2) niyantrit shriankhala abhikriya. aniyantrit shriankhala abhikriya - jab yooreniyam ke ek nabhik se vikhandan dvara prapt sabhi nyootr aaun ek ek nabhik ka vikhandan karean, tab nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya badhati jati hai aur phalasvaroop prati sekand vikhandit honevale nabhikoan ki sankhya bhi badhati jati hai. jitane hi adhik nabhik prati sekand vikhandit hote haian utani hi adhik oorja prati sekand nikalati hai. yah oorja jab bahut adhik ho jati hai tab visphot ho jata hai. U235 mean visphot tabhi sanbhav hai jab aranbh mean yooreniyam piand ka dravyaman ek nishchit matra se adhik ho. is matra ko kraantik dravyaman kahate haian. paramanu bam - paramanu bam banane ke lie U235 ke do aise piand lie jate haian jinamean se pratyek ka dravyaman kraantik dravyaman ke adhe se kuchh adhik hota hai. jab tak ye piand alag alag hote haian, visphot nahian hota. jab ye donoan piand mila die jate haian tab kraantik dravyaman se adhik dravyaman ekatrit hone ke karan visphot ho jata hai. is visphot mean bahut adhik oorja mukt hoti hai. paramanu bam ki shakti das lakh tan, ya isase adhik, ti-en-ti (TNT, or trinitro toluene) ki shakti ke barabar hoti hai. niyantrit shriankhala abhikriya - U235 ke vikhandan ki shriankhala abhikriya yadi is prakar niyantrit ki ja sake ki yah visphot ki sima se kam rahe, to ise niyantrit shriankhala abhikriya kahate haian. isake lie yah avashyak hai ki prati sekand vikhandan mean nikalanevale aur prati sekand U235 mean avashoshit honevale nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya barabar rahe. niyantrit shriankhala abhikriya mean jo oorja mukt hoti hai usaka rachanatmak karyoan mean, udaharanarth vidyuth utpann karane mean, upayog kiya ja sakata hai. nabhikiy riaiktar (reacto) - nabhikiy riektar mean shriankhala abhikriya ko niyantrit rakhakar oorja utpann ki jati hai. vikhandan se jo nyootr aaun nikalate haian unaki oorja lagabhag 1 MeV hoti hai. itani oorja ke karan nyootr aaunoan ki gati bhi bahut adhik hoti hai aur ve U235 ke khiandan ke lie adhik upayogi nahian hote. U235 mean nyootr aaun ke avashoshan ki sanbhavana gati ki vilomanupati hoti hai. at: U235 ke adhik se adhik vikhandan ke lie yah avashyak hai ki nyootr aaunoan ki gati mand ki jae. gati mand karane ke lie halake tatv, jaise dyooteran, graiphait (karban) ityadi, ka upayog kiya jata hai. inhean mandak (moderator) kahate haian. jab adhik oorjavale nyootr aaun karban athava dyooteran se takarate haian tab unamean gatij oorja ka vinimay hota hai. isase nyootr aaun ki gatij oorja aur veg kam ho jate haian. shriankhala abhikriya ko niyantrit karane ke lie aise tatvoan ka upayog kiya jata hai jo nyootr aaunoan ko atyadhik avashoshit kar lete haian, parantu unamean vikhandan nahian hota. kaidamiyam aisa hi tatv hai jisamean nyootr aaun avashoshit karane ki kshamata bahut adhik hoti hai. riaiktar mean U235 ki chh d graiphait, athava bhari pani (heavy water), ke bich mean rakh di jati hai. traanbe (Trombay) mean bane pahale riaiktar 'apsara' mean mandak ke roop mean bhari pani ka upayog kiya jata hai. yooreniyam ke vikhandan se jo nyootr aaun nikalate haian, ve bhari pani ke dyooteran se takarakar mand p d jate haian. niyantran ke lie
tanki mean bhari pani bhara hai, jisamean U235 (yooreniyam)
ke kee chh d rahate haian. abhikriya ko niyantrit karane ke lie
(kaid) kaidamiyam ke chh doan ka upayog hota hai.
kaidamiyam ki chh doan ka upayog kiya jata hai. inako ichchhanusar bahar nikala ya aandar dala ja sakata hai. jab kaidamiyam ki chh doan ko riaiktar mean adhik aandar ghusa diya jata hai tab ve adhik nyootr aaunoan ke sanpark mean ati haian aur inaka adhik avashoshan karati haian. poornataya niyantrit shriankhala abhikriy mean kaidamiyam ki chh de itana adhik aandar hoti hai ki nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya sthayi bani rahati hai aur shriankhala abhikriya niyantrit roop se chalati rahati hai. mandak se takarakar nyootr aaun jab mandit hote haian tab mandak garam ho jata hai. isi ushma se pani khaulakar bhap banaee jati hai aur usase vidyuth utpann ki jati hai.
nyookliy sanlayan (fusion), haidrojan bam - bhari nabhikoan ke vikhandan ke atirikt halake nabhikoan ke sanlayan se bhi oorja prapt hoti hai. hiliyam ke nabhik ki kul bandhanoorja 25 MeV hoti hai. yadi char prot aaunoan ki sanlayit kar hijiyam ka ek nabhik banaya jae to lagabhag uparyukt oorja svatantr hogi, parantu abhikriya ka aranbh hone ke lie yah avashyak hai ki tap 10,00,000° sean. se bhi ooancha ho. haidrojan bam mean oorja isi abhikriya dvara utpann hoti hai. is kriya ko aranbh karane tatha avashyak uchch tap prapt karane ke lie paramanu bam ka upayog kiya jata hai. jab paramanu bam ka visphot hota hai tab bahut ooancha tap utpann hota hai. is tap par prot aaunoan se hiliyam banane lagata hai aur haidrojan bam ki kriya aranbh ho jati hai. isase prapt oorja dvara hi ab ooancha tap bana rahata hai aur sanlayan kriya chalati rahati hai. haidrojan bam mean paramanu bam se hajar guna se adhik shakti hoti hai.
taroan mean oorja ka strot - aisa mana jata hai ki soory tatha any taroan mean oorja ka strot bhi nabhikiy sanlayan hi hai. soory ke keandr mean tap evan dab bahut ooancha hota hai. soory mean haidrojan bhi prachur matra mean hai. at: aisa vishvas kiya jata hai ki vahaan bhi haidrojan ke sanlayan se hiliyam banata hai. isase prapt oorja prakash aur ooshma ke roop mean chaturdikh vikirn hoti rahati hai. any taroan mean doosari nabhikiy sanlayan kriyaean chalati haian.
nabhikiy pratiroop - vibhinn tatvoan ke nabhikoan ke gunoan mean kuchh niyamitata paee jati hai. yadyapi abhi tak aisa koee siddhaant prapt nahian hai jisase in sab gunoan evan niyamitataoan ko samajha ja sake, phir bhi etadarth nirantar prayatn kie ja rahe haian. is vishay mean sabase b di kathinaee is bat ki hai ki nabhikiy bal hi abhi tak spasht roop se nahian samajhe ja sake haian, yadyapi nabhik ko samajhane ke lie anek pratiroop banae ge haian aur vibhinn pratiroopoan ke kuchh aansh milakar mishrit pratiroop bhi banae ge haian. yahaan par keval do pratiroopoan ka sankshipt varnan kiya jaega. ye samoohik pratiroop aur shel pratiroop haian. yadyapi in donoan pratiroopoan ki adharabhoot manyataean ek doosare ke sarvatha viparit haian, phir bhi ye vibhinn paramanubharavale nabhikoan ke gunoan ka santoshajanak varnan karate haian.
shel pratiroop - halake, arthath kam paramanubharavale, nabhikoan ka varnan karane mean yah pratiroop atyant saphal raha hai. is pratiroop ki adharabhoot manyata yah hai ki nabhik ke bhitar pratyek nabhikanu atyant tivr akarshan kshetr mean, vibhinn kakshaoan mean ek doosare se sarvatha svatantr ghoomata hai. yah akarshan kshetr pratyek nabhikanu ke paraspar akarshan ke karan utpann hota hai. is pratiroop mean yah mana jata hai ki pratyek nabhikanu ka kakshiy koniy sanveg 1 aur chakran koniy sanveg dm paraspar sanyog kar poorn koniy sanveg j banata hai, arthath 1+s=j. ab pratyek nabhikanu ke poorn koniy sanveg j ek doosare se prabhavit hote haian, ise jj yugman (coupling) kahate haian. is pratiroop mean paramanavik shel rachana ki bhaanti vibhinn kakshaoan mean nabhikaoan ki alag alag sankhya ati hai. yadi kisi kaksha mean mahattam ath prot aaunoan ke lie sthan hai, to usi kaksha mean prot aaunoan ke atirikt ath nyootr aaun aur ho sakate haian. is prakar pratyek kaksha mean nyootr aaun aur prot aaun ek doosare se sarvada svatantr mane ja sakate haian. is pratiroop mean kuchh p dosi kakshaoan ke madhy oorja ka aantar bahut adhik hota hai. atev ilektr aaunik kakshaoan ki bhaanti yahaan bhi adhik oorja aantar par nimn kaksha ko poorn shel man lete haian. kisi ek poorn shel tak mean jitane prot aaun athava nyootr aaun hote hai unaki sankhyaean niche vyakt ki gee haian :
2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126.
inhean sthayitv sankhyaean (magic numbers) kaha jata hai. do kakshaoan ke bich oorja ka aantar bahut adhik hone ka arth hota hai ki nimn poorn kaksha vala nabhik adhik sthayi hona chahie. prayogoan mean bhi aisa hi paya jata hai. yadi nyootr aaun aur protr aaun donoan sthayitv sankhyavale hoan to nabhik atyadhik sthayi hote haian. inake udaharan haian 2He4, 8O16, 20Ca40, 82Pb208 ityadi. is pratiroop ke adhar par vishadh ganana dvara halake nabhikoan ke vibhinn oorjastar adi bhi atyadhik shuddhatapoorvak prapt ho jate haian. vibhinn nabhikoan ke chakran (spin) ityadi bhi is pratiroop ke adhar par santoshajanak roop mean samajhe ja sakate haian. isake atirikt yah pratiroop halake nabhikoan ke any kee gunoan ka santoshajanak spashtikaran karata hai. sankshep mean, halake nabhikoan ke lie yah pratiroop gunatmak evan matratmak donoan prakar se thik hai.
samoohik pratiroop - yadyapi halake nabhikoan ke lie shel pratiroop atyant santoshaprad hai tathapi jab nabhik bhari hota hai tab usaki vyakhya is pratiroop ke adhar par shuddh nahian hoti. isaka karan yah ho sakata hai ki jab nabhikanuoan ki sankhya bahut adhik ho jati hai tab unamean paraspar kriya badh jati hai aur shel pratiroop ki adharabhoot manyata ki nabhikanu ek doosare se sarvatha svatantr ghoomate haian, thik n hoti ho. ek any pratiroop, jise samoohik pratiroop kahate haian, bhari nabhikoan ke varnan mean kaphi saphal raha hai. is pratiroop ki adharabhoot manyata yah hai ki nabhik ke bhitar pratyek nabhikanu ki paraspar kriya bahut adhik hoti hai. doosare shabdoan mean, samoohik pratiroop ki adharabhoot manyata shel pratiroop ki manyata ke sarvatha viparit hai. isaka pratipadan sarvapratham nils bor ne nabhikiy abhikriyaoan ki vyakhya ke lie kiya tha. vaitsekar ne ek ardhasaiddhaantik samikaran dvara vibhinn nabhikoan ka dravyaman vyakt kiya hai. is pratiroop ke anusar nabhik ki vibhinn oorja sthitiyaan kis akele nabhikanu ke karan nahian haian, balki sanpoorn nabhik ke karan hoti haian. sanpoorn nabhik drav ki ek booand ki bhaanti vyavahar karata hai. yah ek aksh par ghoomata hai tatha isamean spandan hote haian. jab isaka spandan ayam bahut adhik ho jata hai, tab yah do bhagoan mean vibhakt ho jata hai. ise nabhikiy vikhandan kahate haian.
bor aur motalasan ne in do ekadam viparit pratiroopoan ka samanjasy karane ka prayatn kiya hai. inhoanne ek naya pratiroop banaya hai, jisamean donoan hi pratiroopoan ki adharabhoot manyataean sannihit haian. isake anusar kisi nabhik mean har ek nabhikanu, shel pratiroop ke anusar, any nabhikoan dvara utpann nabhikiy kshetr mean niyat kakshaoan mean ghoomata hai. parantu sanpoorn shel mean samoohik spandan hote haian. is samoohik spandan ke karan pratyek nabhikanu ki gati parivartit ho jati hai, kyoanki isase nabhikiy kshetr vikrit ho jata hai. poorn kakshavale nabhikoan ka sthayitv adhik hota hai, at: unamean samoohik gati nyoonatam hoti hai. jin nabhikoan mean nyootr aaunoan ki sankhya poorn shel ke bich ki hoti hai, unamean yah gati mahattam hoti hai. drav ki booand ki bhaanti isamean jvariy tarang (tidal wave) ho sakati hai, jisase koniy sanveg hota hai. is prakar ke pratiroop ko kaphi saphalata mili hai evan age aur adhik saphalata ki asha hai.(dhanavantakaoir gupt)