भारत और विश्व

athavian shatabdi ke bad yoorop aur eshiya mean kee mahattvapoorn parivartan hue. inase n keval yoorop aur eshiya ke sambandhoan mean, balki logoan ke rahan-sahan aur unaki vicharadhara par bhi, dooragami prabhav p de. prachin roman samrajy aur bharat ke bich b di matra mean vyapar hone ke karan in parivartanoan ka prabhav aparoksh roop se bharat par bhi p da.

yoorop

yoorop mean chhathi shatabdi ke uttarardh ke arambh mean shaktishali roman samrajy do hissoan mean bant gaya tha. pashchimi bhag mean, jisaki rajadhani rom thi, roos aur jarmani ki or se bahut b di sankhya mean slav aur jarman qabile ke logoan ke akraman hue. ve ae to the luteroan ke roop mean lekin kalaantar mean ve yoorop mean vibhinn jagahoan par bas ge aur sthaniy abadi ke sath ghulamil ge. isase us samay ki sarakaroan aur us kshetr ki bhashaoan par bhi bahut prabhav p da. is avadhi mean kee adhunik yooropiy rashtroan ki nianv p di. prachin roman samrajy ke poorvi hisse ki rajadhani 'kustunatuniya' thi. isamean poorvi yoorop ke alava adhunik turki tatha siriya ke bhi adhikatar kshetr shamil the. is samrajy ka nam bizantaeen samrajy tha aur isane roman samrajy ki kee paramparaoan ko qayam rakha, jinamean shaktishali samrat ki parampara shamil thi. lekin dharmik mat ke mamale mean isane grik aaurthod aauks charch ko manyata di jabaki pashchimi samrajy ne kaitholik charch ko, jisaka mukhyalay rom mean tha. yah bizantaeen shasakoan aur aaurthod aauks charch ke padariyoan ka hi prabhav tha ki roos mean eesaee dharm ka pradurbhav hua. adhunik turki aur siriya ne bhi, jo bizantaeen samrajy mean shamil the, grik aaurthod aauks charch ko hi svikar kiya. bizantaeen samrajy bahut vishal aur samriddh samrajy tha, aur roman samrajy ke patan ke bad bhi eshiya se isaka vyapar jari raha. isane prashasan aur sanskriti ki kee paramparaoan ki nianv rakhi jo siriya ki vijay ke bad araboan ne apana lian. isane prachin grik (yoonan) aur rom ki sanskriti tatha arab vishv ke bich ek setu ka kary kiya aur bad mean pashchim mean grik jnan ke punarutthan mean bhi madad di. pandrahavian shatabdi ke madhy tak kustunatuniya par turkoan ki vijay ke sath hi is samrajy ka patan ho gaya.

aandhakar yug

pashchim mean roman samrajy ke patan ke bad kee shatabdiyoan tak shaharoan ka namo-nishan mit gaya tatha videsh aur aantarik vyapar mean bhi badha pahuanchi. itihasakaroan ne pashchimi yoorop ke is yug ko 'aandhakar yug' ki sanjna di hai. dasavian aur chaudahavian shatabdi ke bich pashchim yoorop punah vaibhavashali ban gaya. is yug ki ek mukhy den vijnan aur shilpavijnan ka vikas, nagaroan ki vriddhi aur itali ke paduva aur milan jaise kee shaharoan mean vishvavidyalayoan ki sthapana thi. in vishvavidyalayoan ne naye jnan aur nee vicharadhara ke vikas mean ek mahattvapoorn bhoomika nibhaee jisase yoorop mean punarjagaran (rinesaan) kal aya ek naye yoorop ka uday hua.

samantavad ka vikas

pashchimi yoorop mean roman samrajy ke vighatan ke bad ek naye prakar ke samaj aur ek nee shasan vyavastha ka janm hua. is nayi vyavastha ko 'samantavad' kaha jata hai. isaki utpatti ek latini shabd 'phyoodam' (FEUDUM) se huee jo aangrezi mean 'fif' (FIEF) bana. is samaj mean mukhy sthan un saradaroan ka tha jo apani senaoan ki sahayata se bhoomi ke b de hissoan par apana adhikar jama kar rakhate the aur prashasan mean bhi mahattvapoorn bhoomika nibhate the. raja bhi ek aur shaktishali samantavadi saradar hi tha. par samay ke sath-sath samrat ki shakti adhik hoti gee aur chhote saradaroan ki shakti ko simit karane ke prayatn kiye ge. isaka ek tarika yah tha ki raja unake dvara adhikar mean li gee bhoomi ko manyata deta tha aur usake badale unase apane prati nishtha aur seva ke vachan ki maang karata tha phir ye saradar isi prakar apane se chhote saradaroan ko bhoomi ke ek hisse par adhikar dete the aur unase nishtha ka vachan lete the. siddhaant mean raja kisi bhi aise saradar ki bhoomi ke vapas le sakata tha jo usake prati vachanabaddh nahian raha ho. lekin vastavik taur par aisa shayad hi kabhi kiya jata tha. is prakar samantavadi shasan vyavastha mean bhoo-svamiyoan ka mukhy adhikar tha aur ve poori cheshta karate the ki koee bhi bahari adami is vyavastha mean shamil n ho sake. samantavadi vyavastha ki yah bahut hi samany rooparekha hai. is vyavastha mean, turkoan dvara madhy eshiya tatha rajapootoan dvara bharat mean sthapit shasan aur samaj vyavastha mean, bahut samy hai. jaise-jaise is vyavastha ka vikas hota gaya, vibhinn kshetroan mean vahaan ki sthiti aur paramparaoan ke anuroop isane anek roop dharan kar lie. yoorop mean samantavadi vyavastha ka sambandh do aur vyavasthaoan se tha jinamean se ek 'krishi das' vyavastha hai.

krishi das

krishi das ek aisa khetihar tha jo khetoan par kary karata tha lekin vah apani chakari badal nahian sakata tha aur apane svami ki anumati ke bina n to vivah kar sakata tha aur n hi kisi doosari jagah par bas sakata tha. saradar svayan ek qile mean rahata tha aur usake hisse ki bhoomi par krishi das kary karate the. is prakar in krishi dasoan ko apani bhoomi ke alava apane svamiyoan ki bhoomi par bhi kheti karani p dati thi, kyoanki saiddhantik roop se sari bhoomi par saradar ka hi adhikar tha. isalie krishi das ko apane kshetr mean shanti aur vyavastha ko sthapit karane aur nyay dene ki zimmedari thi. un dinoan rajanitik sthiti bahut hi asthir thi isalie mukt kisan bhi kabhi-kabhi suraksha ke badale saradaroan ke adhikar ko svikar karane ke lie taiyar ho jate the. kuchh itihasakar manate haian ki krishi dasata aur bhoo-vyavastha samanti vyavastha ke mukhy adhar haian aur aise samaj ke bare mean samantavad ki charcha karana galat hoga jinamean ye do vyavasthaean nahian haian. par isake viparit, udaharanarth bharat mean bhi krishi dasatv tatha samantiy bhoomi vyavastha nahian thi, lekin yahaan zamiandar samanti saradaroan ke adhikatar adhikaroan ka prayog karate the aur kisan unake adhin the. doosare shabdoan mean dhyan dene yogy yah bat nahian hai ki kisan siddhaant mean mukt tha ya nahian, balki yah hai ki vah kin tarikoan se apani azadi ka prayog kar sakata tha. pashchimi yoorop ke anek deshoan mean chaudahavian shatabdi ke bad samantiy bhoo-vyavastha gayab ho gee.

sainik sangathan

yoorop mean samantavadi vyavastha ka doosara adhar sainik sangathan tha. is sangathan ka pratik bakhtaraband ghu dasavar the. vastav mean yuddh gho doan ka upayog athavian shatabdi tak hone laga tha. roman samrajy ke yug mean sena ke mukhy aang lambe bhaloan, chhoti talavaroan se lais paidal sipahi the. gho doan ka upayog keval un rathoan ko khianchane mean hota jin par pramukh sainik adhikari savar rahate the. samanyatah yah mana jata hai ki araboan ke agaman ke sath hi yuddh ke tariqoan mean parivartan hue. araboan ke pas b di sankhya mean gho de the aur un par savar dhanushadhari sainiko ke samane paidal sipahi bilkul bekar siddh hote the. is nayi yuddhaniti ke vikas aur sangathan ke rakh-rakhav ki avashyakata ke karan bhi yoorop mean samantavadi vyavastha mazaboot huee. koee bhi raja apane sadhanoan se n to ghu dasavaroan ki itani b di sankhya ko banae rakh sakata tha aur n hi unake sajo-saman ka prabandh kar sakata tha. isi karan sena ka vikendrikaran hua aur samanti saradaroan par rajy ki seva ke lie nishchit sankhya mean ghu dasavaroan aur paidal sipahiyoan ko rakhane ki zimmedari aee.

yuddh mean avishkaroan ka prayog

yuddh mean ghu dasavaroan ki mukhy bhoomika do avishkaroan ke karan huee. ye avishkar vaise to bahut pahale the lekin inaka upayog b de paimane par isi yug mean hua. inamean se pahala avishkar lohe ki raqaboan ka tha. raqaboan ke istemal se yah sambhav ho saka ki bakhtaraband sainik bina gire gho de ki pith par baith kar yuddh kar sakean. ghu dasavar bhale ko apane sharir se sata kar hamala kar sakate the aur dhakka lagane par girane ki ashanka bhi nahian thi. isake poorv ya to kath ki raqaboan ka prayog hota tha ya phir pair ke aangoothe ko phansane ke lie gho de par rassi ka tuk da baandha jata tha.
doosara avishkar tha ek vishesh prakar ki lagam. jisase gho de ab pahale ki apeksha duguna bojh khianch sakate the. aisa mana jata hai ki ye donoan avishkar yoorop mean poorv ki or se, sambhavatah madhy eshiya se, pahuanche aur dasavian shatabdi ke bad inaka upayog b de paimane par hone laga.

is prakar yoorop mean samanvad kee karanoan - rajanitik, arthik aur sainy shakti ke karan phaila jab kabhi kisi shaktishali shasan ka uday hua tab bhi raja ke lie samanti saradaroan ki shakti ko kam karana kathin ho gaya.

samantavadi vyavastha ke alava yoorop mean is yug mean, jise madhy yug kaha jata hai, logoan ka jivan eesaee dharm se bahut prabhavit tha. bizantaeen samrajy aur roos mean grik aaurthod aauks charch ka prabhav tha. pashchim mean kisi shaktishali samrajy ke abhav mean, kaitholik charch ne shasan ka bhi kuchh kam apane hathoan mean le liya. kaitholik charch ka pramukh, 'pop', is prakar n keval dharmik mahattv ka vyakti rah gaya balki rajanitik aur naitik mamaloan mean bhi usake adhikar bahut badh ge. isaka karan yah tha ki pashchim eshiya aur bharat ki tarah yoorop mean bhi madhy yug mean dharm ka bahut adhik prabhav tha aur dharmik sansthanoan se ju de jo vyakti the, unaka prabhav bhi bahut adhik vyapak ho gaya tha. rajaoan, samanti saradaroan aur b de vyapariyoan dvara die ge bhoomi dan se kee mathoan ki sthapana huee aur kee dharmik sampraday uth kh de hue. inamean se phraansisakan jaise kuchh sampraday vastav mean gariboan ki sahayata karate the. bahut se math chikitsa seva pradan karate the aur rahagiroan ko sharan dete the. isake alava ve shiksha aur jnan ke kendr ke roop mean bhi kary karate the. is prakar yoorop ke saanskritik jivan mean kaitholik charch ki bahut mahattvapoorn bhoomika rahi.

lekin doosari or kuchh aise bhi math the jo bahut dhani ho ge the aur inake pramukh samanti saradaroan ki tarah vyavahar karane lage the. isase aantarik matabhed paida ho gaya aur shasak varg se, jo charch aur pop ke prabhav ko sahan nahian kar sakata tha, sangharsh arambh ho gaya.

arab samrajy

islam ke uday se arab mean hamesha apas mean l dane vale qabile ekajut hokar ek shaktishali samrajy ke roop mean age ae. arab samrajy ki sthapana ke arambh mean jin khalifoan ne mahattvapoorn bhoomika nibhaee, unamean arab ke alava siriya, eeraq, eeran, misr, uttari aphrika tatha spen ke khalife shamil the.

arab qabiloan ke bich aantarik sangharshoan aur grih yuddhoan ke parinamasvaroop athavian shatabdi ke madhy tak bagadad mean abbasikh khalife shaktishali ho ge. inaka dava tha ki ye usi qabile ke sadasy haian, jis qabile ke muhammad sahab the aur is karan unhean bhi pavitr mana jana chahie. dedh sau varshoan tak unaka samrajy shaktishali aur samriddh samrajyoan mean se ek tha. jab abbasi samrajy apani unnati ke shikhar par tha tab sabhyata tatha sanskriti ke qarib-qarib sabhi pramukh kendr usake adhin the. inamean misr, siriya, eeran aur eerak ke kendr shamil the. is prakar abbasidoan ka prabhav n keval pashchim eshiya aur uttari aphrika ke dhani deshoan par tha, varanh bhoomadhy sagar kshetr ke deshoan aur bharat aur chin ko jo dane vale vyapar margoan par bhi inaka adhikar tha. in margoan ko abbasi suraksha pradan karate the, usake karan us kshetr ki bahut samriddhi huee aur isase abbasi rajadarabar ka bhi vaibhav bahut badh gaya. arab log bahut vyapar kushal the aur is kal mean samudri athava any margoan ke madhyam se bahut b de vyapariyoan ke roop mean inaka uday hua. isake parinamasvaroop b de shaharoan ki nianv p di. is avadhi mean vishv ka shayad hi koee aisa desh tha jo logoan ke rahan-sahan ke star aur saanskritik upalabdhiyoan mean arab shaharoan ki tulana kar sakata ho. is yug ke sabase prasiddh khalife mamun tatha harun-al-rashid the. unake raj darabar aur mahaloan ka vaibhav aur vidvanoan ko unaka sanrakshan bad mean kee kahaniyoan ke vishay bane.

arab vijnan

is kal mean araboan ne apane dvara vijit samrajyoan ke vaijnanik jnan aur prashasakiy dakshata ko sikhane aur use apanane mean adabhut yogyata dikhaee. ve eesaee aur yahoodi jaise gair-musalamanoan tatha gair-araboan, visheshakar eerani, jinamean kee jarathustr sampray ke the aur bauddhoan ko bhi prashasan mean shamil karane se nahian hichakichae. yadyapi abbasi khalife kattar musalaman the. phir bhi unhoanne jnan ke lie har disha ke daravaze khule rakhe. basharte ki is jnan se islam ki moolabhoot manyataoan ko thes n pahuanchati ho. khalifa al mamun ne bagadad mean jnan bhandar (bait-ul-hikamat) ki sthapana ki jisamean grik, bizantaeen, misri, eerani aur bharatiy jaise vibhinn sanskritiyoan ki pustakoan ka arabi mean anuvad kiya jata tha. khalifa ne jo udaharan rakha, use any uchch vargoan ke logoan ne aur age badhaya. phalasvaroop tho di hi avadhi mean vibhinn deshoan ki qarib-qarib moolyavan vaijnanik pustakoan ka anuvad arabi mean ho gaya. hal ke varshoan mean kuchh yooropiy vidvanoan ke prayas ke karan ham araboan par grik vijnan aur darshan ke prabhav ke bare mean bahut kuchh jan sake haian. arab samrajy par chini vijnan aur darshan ke prabhav ka adhyayan bhi arambh ho gaya. isi avadhi mean disha yantr (k aaumpas) chhapaee, barood aur yahaan tak ki pahiyoan vali ga di jaise chini avishkar araboan ke madhyam se yoorop tak pahuanche. is vishay mean aur janakari hasil karane ke lie, tatha chin ke sath yoorop ke vyapar par araboan ke ekadhipaty ko samapt karane ke lie, venis ka prasiddh yatri markopolo chin pahuancha.

bharatiy pustakoan ka anuvad

durbhagyavash is avadhi mean arab ke sath bharat ke arthik aur saanskritik sambandhoan tatha bharat ki vaijnanik den ke bare mean ham bahut kam janate haian. athavian shatabdi mean araboan dvara siandh vijay se araboan aur bharat ke vibhinn kshetroan mean saanskritik sambandhoan mean koee pragati nahian huee. ham itana avashy janate haian ki isi kal mean bharatiy ganit aur khagolashastr ki pustakoan ka arabi mean anuvad hua. inamean aryabhat ki prasiddh pustak 'saur-siddhaant' shamil thi. bharatiy vyapari eeran aur eerak ke bazaroan mean jate the aur bharatiy chikitsa shastriyoan tatha hastakala visheshajnoan ka bagadad mean khalife darabar mean svagat hota tha. kee sanskrit pustakoan ka anuvad farasi mean hua, jinamean panchatantr (kalil vas dimana) shamil thi. ye hi kahaniyaan pashchim mean eesap ki kahaniyoan ka adhar bani. bharatiy vijnan aur darshan ka arab samrajy par prabhav aur bharat par arab vijnan ke prabhav ka poorn adhyayan abhi kiya jana hai.

dasavian shatabdi ke arambh tak arab aisi sthiti mean pahuanch chuke the, jab vibhinn vaijnanik vishayoan mean ve svayan yogadan kar sakean. is yug mean jyamiti, bijaganit, bhoogol, nakshatr shastr, prakash shastr, rasayan shastr aur chikitsa shastr mean araboan ke yogadan ne unhean vijnan ke kshetr mean agrani bana diya tha. arab mean is kal mean vishv ke sabase achchhe pustakalay the aur unhoanne pramukh vaijnanik anusandhanashalaoan ki sthapana ki. phir bhi yah yad rakhana avashyak hai ki kee avishkar khurasan, misr aur spen jaise arab ke bahar ke deshoan ke logoan ne kiya tha. is prakar ham kah sakate haian ki arab vijnan vastav mean antarrashtriy tha. is arab vijnan isalie kaha jata hai ki kyoanki is sare kshetr mean bhasha ka madhyam arabi hi tha. vibhinn deshoan ke logoan ko kahian bhi jane, kam karane athava basane ki chhoot thi. vidvanoan athava vaijnanikoan ko vyaktigat vicharadhara ki jo svatantrata thi, aur unhean jo sanrakshan milata tha, isase arab vijnan aur sanskriti ke vikas mean bahut sahayata mili. aisi svatantrata is kal mean eesaee, charch ki kattarata ke karan yoorop mean upalabdh nahian thi. shayad bharat mean bhi kuchh aisa hi vatavaran tha, kyoanki arab vijnan ka shayad hi kuchh hissa bharat tak pahuancha aur bharatiy vijnan svayan j dabhoot ho gaya. chaudahavian shatabdi ke bad is kshetr mean mukhyatah rajanitik ghatanaoan ke karan, lekin usase bhi adhik vicharadhara ko j d kar dene vali kattarata ke karan, arab vijnan ka hras ho gaya.

poorv aur dakshin poorv eshiya

chin mean athavian aur nauvi shatabdi mean taang shasan ke kal mean vahaan ki sabhyata aur sanskriti apane shikhar par thi. taang shasakoan ne madhy eshiya mean sigakianyaang ke b de hisse par, jisamean kashagar bhi shamil tha, apana adhikar sthapit kar liya tha. isase 'silk-marg' ke raste unaka vyapar bahut badha. isi raste ve n keval resham balki achchhi qism ke chini mitti ke bartan tatha sangayashav (jed) patthar ka pashchim eshiya, yoorop tatha bharat ko niryat karate the. chin mean videshi vyapariyoan ka bhi svagat kiya jata tha. inamean se kee arabi, farasi aur bharatiy vyapari samudr ke raste dakshin chin ate the aur kaitan mean bas jate the.
nauvian shatabdi ke madhy tak taang samrajy ka patan ho gaya aur isaka sthan suang vansh ne liya. jisane sau varshoan tak chin par shasan kiya. usaki badhati kamazoriyoan se terahavian shatabdi mean mangoloan ko chin par akraman karane ka mauqa mil gaya. mangoloan ne chin mean b de paimane par lootapat aur hatyaean kian par apani anushasit aur kushal ashv sena ke bal par ve pahali bar uttar aur dakshini chin ko ek kar apane niyantran mean lane mean saphal ho sake. kuchh samay tak unaka adhikar (dakshin viyatanam) tak bhi phaila tha. uttar mean unhoanne koriya par qabza kar liya tha. is prakar poorv eshiya mean mangoloan ne ek bahut b da samrajy sthapit kar liya.
venis ke yatri markopolo ne, jisane chin ke sabase prasiddh mangol samrat kubalaee khan ke darabar mean kuchh samay bitaya tha, vahaan ke bare mean b da hi rochak vrittaant chho da hai. markopolo bharat mean malabar hote hue samudr ke raste itali lauta. is tarah is samay vishv ke vibhinn rashtr ek doosare ke nikat a rahe the aur unake bich vyaparik aur saanskritik sambandh badh rahe the.
us samay dakshin poorv eshiya ke kuchh desh chini samratoan ki vistaravadi niti se prabhavit to hue par adhikatar samay ve svatantr hi rahe. is yug mean is kshetr ke do any shaktishali samrajy 'shailendr' tatha 'kambuj' ke the.

shailendr samrajy

shailendr samrajy ka abhyuday satavian shatabdi mean hua aur yah samrajy shri vijay samrajy ke sthan par sthapit hua. yah barahavian shatabdi tak shaktishali bana raha. apane charamotkarsh par is samrajy mean sumatra, java, malaya pray:dvip syam (adhunik thailaiand) ke kuchh bhag aur yahaan tak ki filipaeens bhi shamil the. nauvian shatabdi ke ek arab lekhak ke anusar yah samrajy itana vishal tha ki sabase tez gati ki nauka bhi poore samrajy ki parikrama do varshoan mean bhi nahian kar sakati thi. shailendr shasakoan ke pas ek shaktishali nausena bhi thi. jisaka chin ke samudri raste par sabase adhik prabhav tha. pahale ki tarah ab bhi is kshetr ke deshoan ke sath bharat ke vyapar aur saanskritik sambandh the. is samrajy ki rajadhani 'palemabaang' sumatra mean sthit thi aur yah pahale se hi sanskrit aur bauddh dharm ke adhyayan ka mahattvapoorn kendr tha. yahaan kee chini aur bharatiy vidvanh adhyayan ke lie ate the. shailendr shasakoan ne kee bhavy mandiroan ka bhi nirman kiya. inamean se sabase prasiddh 'borobodur' ka bauddh mandir hai. isaka nirman ek poore paha d ko nau talloan mean katakar kiya gaya hai, jisake sabase oopar ek stoop hai. is yug mean sahity, lok kala, kathaputali ke nach ke vishay, bharatiy mahakavyoan ramayan tatha mahabharat se anupramanit hote the.

kamboj samrajy

kamboj samrajy ka adhikar kshetr kambodiya tatha annam (dakshin viyatanam) tak phaila hua tha aur isane is us kshetr mean sthapit phunan ke hindoo rajy ka sthan liya tha. kamboj samrajy pandrahavian shatabdi tak shaktishali aur samriddh raha. isaki sabase mahattvapoorn upalabdhi kambodiya mean 'aankor thom' ke nikat mandiroan ka samooh mani jati hai. inamean se sabase b da mandir 'aankoravat ka mandir' hai. isamean tin kilomitar tak chhat se dhaka rasta hai aur devi-devataoan tatha apsaraoan ki sundar moortiyaan haian. divaroan par ramayan tatha mahabharat ki kahaniyoan ke drishy chitrit haian. ye sare mandir vismriti ke garbh mean sama ge the aur ghane jangaloan se dhak ge the. ek phraansisi ne 1860 mean inaki khoj ki. dhyan dene ki bat yah hai ki is kshetr mean dasavian se barahavian shatabdi ki avadhi ko mandiroan ka nirmanakal kaha jata hai.

bharat mean bhi isi avadhi mean bhavy mandir bane. is kal mean kee bharatiy vyapari dakshin chin mean aye aur kee brahman tatha bauddh bhikshu yahaan bas bhi ge. bauddh dharm ka apani janm-bhoomi bharat mean hras hua lekin dakshin poorv eshiya mean isaki lokapriyata badhati gee. kalantar mean bauddh dharm ne hindoo devi-devataoan yahaan tak ki unake mandiroan ko bhi apana liya. yah prakriya bharat mean in donoan dharmoan ke bich ke sambandhoan ke bilkul viparit thi.

is prakar pashchim tatha dakshin poorv eshiya aur chin ke sath bharat ke nikat ke vyaparik tatha saanskritik sambandh the. in rajyoan ne bhi bharat tatha any deshoan ko chin ke sath in samrajyoan ko badhane mean setu ka kary kiya. yadyapi ye rajy bharatiy sabhyata aur sanskriti se bahut prabhavit the, ve apani vibhinn uchch star ki sanskritiyoan ko qayam rakhane mean saphal ho sake. dakshin bharat aur dakshin poorv eshiya mean pahale se hi ane vale arab vyapari abbasi samrajy ki sthapana ke bad bhi aur bhi sakriy ho uthe. lekin araboan ne bharatiy vyapariyoan aur dharm pracharakoan ka n to sthan hi liya aur n hi unhoanne is kshetr mean logoan ko islam ko svikar karavane ke lie vishesh prayas kie. is tarah in donoan deshoan mean dharmik sahishnuta aur vyaktigat azadi vyapt thi aur vibhinn sanskritiyoan ke bich mukt adan-pradan hota tha. inaki yah visheshata aj bhi vidyaman hai. iandoneshiya aur malaya mean islam dhire-dhire aya jabaki bharat mean isaki nianv mazaboot ho chuki thi. any deshoan ke bich vyaparik aur saanskritik sambandh tabhi toote jab iandoneshiya mean dach, bharat tatha barma (vartaman myaanmar) aur malaya mean aangrez aur bad mean hind-chin mean phraansisi logoan ka prabhav jam gaya.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

tika tippani aur sandarbh

varnamala kramanusar lekh khoj

a a i ee u oo e ai o au aan k kh g gh n ch chh j jh n t th d dh n t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l v sh sh s h ksh tr jn rri rri aau shr aah