उरग

urag prishthavanshi jantuoan ka ek varg hai. sarp, chhipakali, kachhua, gh diyal, ye sabhi urag varg ke jantu haian. vartaman kal mean to is varg ke jantu bahut mahatvapoorn nahian rah ge haian aur inaki sankhya bhi adhik nahian hai, kiantu madhyakalp namak bhootakal mean ye ni:sandeh prithvi par ke sabase adhik mahatvapoorn jantu the. inamean se bahutoan ki nap vartaman kal ke hathi ki nap se b di thi.

uragavansh ki utpatti karbanaprad yug mean ubhayachar varg ke avritashirsh anuvarg (stegosifeliya aianfibija) se huee aur giriyug (parmiyan), riktashm (traiaisik) tatha mahasarat (juraisik) yugoan mean inaka bahut vikas hua. ady uragoan ka vikas do dishaoan mean prithakh‌ prithakri hua. kuchh ady urag stanadhari jantuoan ke sadrish hote ge aur khatiyug (kriteshas yug) mean ady stanadhari jantuoan mean parinat ho ge aur kuchh se uragavarg aur pakshivarg ke jantu utpann hue. raktashm (traiaisik) aur mahasarat (juraisik) yugoan mean uragavansh ke jantu b di adhikata se prithvi par phaile hue the. inamean se adhikaansh sookhi bhoomi par rahanevale the, parantu kuchh jal mean rahanevale aur kuchh u danevale bhi the. uragoan ke adhikaansh samooh lupt ho chuke haian, keval paanch gan vartaman kal mean pae jate haian. ye haian : 1-godhikanugan (laisaratiliya); 2-ahmanugan (ofidiya); 3-parivarmigan (kiloniya); 4-makaragan (krokodiliya); 5-palyabhagan (riangakosifailiya) jisamean keval sphanadant prajati (sfinod aaun) ab jivit haian.

uragavarg ki paribhasha kathin hai, kyoanki ady urag avritashirsh anuvarg (stegosifeliya) ke sadrish the; inase ve vikasit hue aur pichhe ke uragoan mean se kuchh stanadhariyoan ke sadrish ho ge or kuchh pakshiyoan ke. shesh vartamanakal ke or kuchh bhootakal ke urag (jo lupt ho chuke haian) vikasit hue. is karan kuchh vidvanoan ki yah dharana hai ki urag varg to dakar tin svatantr vargoan ka nirman karana chahie. ye haian :

1-adyasarat varg (protos aauriya), jinamean ubhayachar (aianphibiya) sadrish urag rakhe jaean; 2- theripsida, jinamean stanadhari sadrish urag aur stanadhari jantu rakhe jaean; aur 3- pakshisarisrip, jinamean vishisht urag tatha pakshivarg rakhe jaean. parantu isamean sandeh nahian ki yah vargikaran purane vargikaran se bhi kam santoshajanak hai.

lakshan - uragoan ka ek b da lakshan yah hai ki unake charm ke oopar bahmatvakiy shalk (epidarmal skels) hote haian. kuchh bhootakalin urag (jo lupt ho chuke haian) aise bhi the jinake sharir par bahmatvakiy shalk nahian the aur kachhuoan ki pith aur udar par ki khal par bahmatvakiy shalk nahian hote. parantu adhikaansh uragoan mean yah chihn avashy milata hai. uragoan ka charm sookha hota hai, kyoanki inamean granthiyaan bahut kam hoti haian aur ye vishesh sthanoan par hi paee jati hai. aantaratvakh‌ mean aur kabhi-kabhi bahmatvakh‌ ke nichale staroan mean rangakoshth pae jate haian jinake karan charm ranga hua dikhaee p data hai. kuchh sapoan aur chhipakaliyoan mean charmarang badalane ki shakti paee jati hai. yah shakti giragit mean adhik matra mean vikasit hai. urag ka hriday ubhayacharoan ke hriday ke sadrish hota hai, parantu kee lakshanoan mean usase bhinn hota hai. ubhayacharoan ke hriday ke sadrish uragoan ka hriday do koshthoan mean vibhajit hota hai: dahina aur bayaan.

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rajadaity sarat (tirainos aauras reks)

aliand (aaurikil) aur nilay (veantrikil)rajadaity sarat (tirainos aauras reks) makaroan aur parivarmigan (kiloniya) mean nilay bhi do kashthoan mean vibhajit hota hai, kiantu doosare uragoan mean nahian. rohini mool (kelis artiriosas), jo ubhayacharoan mean paya jata hai, uragoan mean nahian hota aur inamean abhyudariy mahadhamani (veantral eaaurata) tin svatantr skandhoan mean vibhajit ho jati hai jo ubhayachar mean nahian hota. ye haian (1) dahini aur baee daihik mahadhamani (sistemik eaaurata), (2) phuphphus dhamani (palmoneri aratari). ubhayachar ke sadrish uragoan mean donoan daihik mahadhamaniyaan vidyaman rahati haian aur unake sanyog se abhyudariy mahadhamani ki utpatti hoti hai, kiantu uragoan mean sir, griva aur hath mean rakt pahuanchanevali sab mahadhamaniyaan dahini deh se hi nikalati haian.

vargikaranarajadaity sarat (tirainos aauras reks) uragoan ke vargikaran mean khop di ke shankh (teanporal) pradesh ki sanrachana ko b da mahatv diya jata hai. avritashirsh anuvarg namak ady ubhayacharoan mean, jinase uragoan ka vikas hua, shankh pradesh ki sab haddiyaan ek doosari se mili huee thian aur unake bich koee bhi vichchhed nahian tha. ady uragoan mean bhi yahi avastha bani rahi. sabase ady urag moolasaratagan (k aautilos aauriya) aur vartaman yug ke uranoan, parivarmigan, mean yah avastha milati hai. is prakar ke uragoan ko, jinake shankh pradesh ko chhadi ko sanrachana sanpoorn ho, achhidrakaroti (ainaipsida) upajati ya mahagan mean rakha jata hai. isi prakar uragoan ka sanpoornavarg char b dean samoohoan mean vibhajit kiya jata hai. ye haian : achhidrakaroti (ainaipsida), yuktachhidrakaroti (sinaipsida), chatushchhidrakaroti (dayapsida), dviddhidrakaroti (pairaipsida).

achhidrakarotirajadaity sarat (tirainos aauras reks) ye urag ady ubhayachar se bahut vibhinn nahian the aur kabhi-kabhi inako sanpoorn roop se prithakh‌ karana kathin ho jata hai. is varg ke urag prithvi par karbanaprad, giri aur raktashm yugoan mean rahate the aur ye ab lupt ho chuke haian. in uragoan mean anusarat (maikros aauriya), chitrapad (simooriyamorfa), aur moolasarat (k aautilos aauriya) sammilit haian. in mean inake poorvaj avritashirsh anuvargoan ke shankh pradesh ki sab haddiyaan vidyaman thian. vidvanoan ki yah dharana hai ki yah samooh vastav mean bahoodbhav (p lifailetik) hai aur isaka vikas prithakh‌-pathakh‌ unake poorvajoan se hua. kuchh vidvanh‌ anusaratagan ko ab bhi ady ubhayachar (avritt shirsh anuvarg) ya gahanadant gan (laibiriyodata) mean hi sammilit karate haian. ye urag 1 phut se 6 ya 7 phut tak lanbe the aur pet ke bal reangate the, kyoanki inake hath pair chalane mean adhik sahayata dene ke yogy nahian the. chitrapad prajati (simauriya) giriyug ka bahut purana urag hai. isaki khop di mean aantarashankhak (iantarateporal) haddi paee jati hai jo avritashirsh anuvarg mean vidyaman thi, kiantu chitrapad prajati ke atirikt any sab uragoan mean lupt ho gee hai. isi prakar chitrapad prajati ki triveni (terigaid) haddi chatushkon (kvadret) ke niche se hokar jati hai aur usake pichhe agragandasthi (kvamosail) se milati hai. in haddiyoan ka aisa parasparik sanbandh bhi shesh uragoan mean nahian paya jata. chitrapad prajati ki apeksha moolasaratagan (k aautilos aauriya) ki khop di ki sanrachana adhik uragoan ke sadrish hai.

parivarmigan (kiloniya) - is samooh ke kuchh pratinidhi aj bhi vidyaman hai, jaise kachhua. kachhua ki ganana bhi vidvanh‌ achhidrakaroti mean hi karate haian, kyoanki isaki khop di mean shankh pradesh ki haddiyaan avritashirsh anuvarg ki haddiyoan ke saman haian, arthath‌ shankh chhadi poorn hai aur koee shankh vivarak (teanporal f aausa) vidyaman nahian hai, parantu is dharana ke viruddh yah bat paee jati hai ki kachhuoan ki khop di ki haddiyaan achhidrakarotiyoan ki khop di ki haddiyoan ki apeksha sankhya mean kam haian. kee haddiyaan lupt ho gee haian. kachhuoan ki khop di mean uparishankhak (suprateanporal), uttaraparshvika (postaparaietail) aur chipit (taibular) haddiyaan nahian hotian, jo any achhidrakarotiyoan mean paee jati haian. prithakh‌ pathakh‌ uttaralalat (postaphr aauntal) ki or utaranetraguha (postaaurbital) ki haddiyoan ke sthan par keval ek haddi hoti hai aur nasy (naisel), agralalat (prif aauntal) aur ashru asthi namak tin haddiyoan ki jagah par bhi keval ek haddi hoti hai. in karanoan se kuchh vidvanh‌ parivarmigan ko achhidrakarotivarg mean sthan dene ke viruddh haian. unaki dharana yah hai ki kachhuoan ki khop di ki haddiyoan ka vinyas ady nahian, uttarajat hai. bahut-si khop diyoan ki haddiyoan ki haddiyaan, jinaka ady parivarmiganoan mean lop ho gaya, phir se utpann ho gee, jaise parivarmigan aur podoknemis mean.

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minasarat (ikthiyosar, ek samudrik urag) ka jivashm

is jati ke jiv 8 se 10 phut lanbe hote the. yah jivashm mahasarat sansthan (jooraisik) shilaoan mean paya gaya tha. isaka sanpoorn kankal khanij mean tatha maans koyale mean parivartit ho gaya tha.

kachhue - kachhuoan mean any kee visheshataean milati haian. inaka sharir ek haddi ke pravar ke bhitar hota hai. yah pravar oopar ki or charm se dhaka rahata hai jo mridukashyapavansh (traionikidi) aur apravaranugan (athisi) ke atirikt any kachhuoan mean shrriangavath‌ kathor hota hai. inake jab doan mean daant nahian hote aur nak ka chhidr ek hi hota hai. pravar (ya kathor kosh) ke do bhag hote haian, ek prishthiy aur doosara pratiprishthiy. prishthiy ko prishthavarm (kairepes) kahate haian aur pratiprishth bhag ko udaravarm (plaistran). prishthavarm ke oopar ke charm par kathor patt hote haian jinaka vinyas prishthavarm ki haddiyoan ke vinyas par adharit hota hai. prishthavarm kee ek haddiyoan ke yog se bana rahata hai. bich mean ek pankti ath chhoti-chhoti haddiyoan ki hoti hai jise tantrikapatt (nyooral plets) kahate haian. pratham tantrikapatt ke pichhe ek katipatt (paigail plet) hota hai. tantrikapatt ke donoan or ath parshupatt (k aaustail plets) hote haian jo vaksh kasherukaoan ki pasaliyoan se ju de hote haian. ye pasaliyaan parshupattoan se pare prishthavarm ke kinare ke praant pattoan se milati haian. sadharanat: ye praantapatt sankhya mean 11 jo di hote haian. prishthavarm ke tantrikapatath niche sthit vakshakasherukaoan ke chetashaly (nyooral spains) se sayujyit (fyoojd) hote haian. jaisa oopar kaha ja chuka hai, pravar ka doosara bhag udaravarm hai. yah praantapatt se svayan ju da hota hai athava snayuoan ke dvara ju da rahata hai. prishthavarm ki bhaanti yah bhi kee ek aantaratvakh‌ (darmal) haddiyoan ke jo d se bana hota hai. ye haian ek madhy aantarudaravarm (eantoplaistran) aur char jo di any haddiyaan-uparyudaravarm (epiplaistra), adhodaravarm

(haipoplaistra), dvitodaravarm (haipoplaistran) aur pashchodaravarm (zifiplastran). yah mana jata hai ki aantarudaravarm any kasheru kadandiyoan ke aantarakshak (iantarklaivikal) ke anuroop hai aur uparyudaravarm unake akshak ke. kuchh kachhuoan mean sanpoorn udaravarm ek santatapatt ke roop mean hota hai, jaisa bhoomi par rahanevale testayoodinidi jati ke kachhuoan mean paya jata hai. prishthavarm tatha udaravarm donoan hi ke oopar ke siang ke saman kathor adhicharmiy varm niche sthit haddiyoan ke thik thik anuroop nahian hote. sadharanat: prishthatal par ek madhy pankti paanch kasheruka varmo ki hoti hai, daean aur baean tak ek pankti char parshuvarmo ki hoti hai, aur kinare kinare 24 athava 25 praantavarm hote hai, jinaka agala ghata (nyookail) aur pichhala kati (paigail) ya puchchhopari (suprak aaudail) kahalata hai. pratiprishthatal par 6 jo de varm hote haian, jinake nam haian (age se pichhe ki or) gal (gyoolar), aansyak (hyoo maral), aans (pektoral), udariy (aibd aauminal), ooru (femoral) aur gud (ainal). gal ke age sadharanat: ek aantaragal hota hai aur praant ke niche kuchh adh:praant hote haian jinaki sankhya nishchit nahian hoti hai.

kachhuoan ke prishth mean any uragoan ki apeksha kam kasherukaean hoti haian. sadharanat : 8 graiv (sarvikal), 10 vakshiy (thoraisik), 2 trik (saikrail) aur kuchh tho di si puchchhiy (k aaudails) hoti haian, jinaki sankhya badala karati hai.

kachhue aande kam dete haian, parantu samudri kachhue sthalachar kachhuoan ki apeksha adhik aande dete haian. jalachar kachhue apane aandoan ko kinaroan ke samip mitti athava baloo mean ga d dete haian. kachhue dhire-dhire badhate haian aur inaki ayu bhi adhik hoti hai. kuchh kachhue barah varsh ki avastha prapt karane par aande dena aranbh karate haian.

adhikaansh kachhue vanaspati khate haian, kiantu kuchh charnapravar (molasks), machhali ityadi bhi khate haian. kachhue sthalachar hote haian, nadi aur pokharoan mean pae jate haian aur samudr mean bhi tat ke nikat rahate haian. ye adhikatar garam deshoan mean hi milate haian. kachhuoan aur any uragoan ke sharir ki sanrachana mean bahut aantar paya jata hai aur aise aantar sabase prachin uttararaktashmayug ke kachhuoan mean bhi pae ge haian.

kachhuoan ka vargikaran-kachhue do upaganoan mean vibhajit kie jate haian-(1) athisi aur (2) thikaufora

athisi- in kachhuoan ki kasherukaean aur pasaliyaan svatantr hoti haian, prishthavarm se ju di nahian hotian. charm par siang ke saman kathor patt nahian hote aur bahu tatha pad kshepani sadrish tatha bina nakhoan ke hote haian. ye samudri prani haian aur hiand, prashaant tatha aandh mahasagar ke ushn katibandh pradesh mean pae jate haian.

thikaufora - in kachhuoan ki kasherukaean tatha pasaliyaan prishthavarg se ju di hoti haian. yah samooh kee ek kuloan mean vibhajit hai. kelididi kul ke kachhuoan ki pooanchhean lanbi hoti haian aur inaki aanguliyaan jalayukt (vebd) hoti haian. ye b de prachand hote haian. kelidra uttari amarika mean paya jata hai aur khaya bhi jata hai. testayoodinidi kul ke kachhue astreliya aur poorvi eshiya ko chho d any sab pradeshoan mean pae jate haian. inamean sthalachar aur jalachar donoan prakar ke kachhue shamil haian. kachhua, batagar, haradela aur chayabasiya bharat mean paee janevali jatiyoan ke nam haian. testayoodo palifimas uttari amarika mean paya jata hai. inamean kuchh b de dil ke hote haian, jinake kavach 55 ianch vyas tak ke hote haian. galapagas, ailadibra ityadi sthanoan ke kachhue 150 varsh ya isase bhi adhik samay tak jivit rahate haian. kelonaidi kul ke sab kachhue samudri hote haian. hara kachhua

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sistado kairolina namak petiroopi kachchhap (b aauks tatal)

(kelon midas) aandh, hiand tatha prashaant mahasagaroan mean paya jata hai. yah vanaspati khakar rahata hai. isake maans, vasa tatha kavach ke bhitar ke sanyoji ootak ka jhol (soop) banaya jata hai. shyenachanchu kashyap (kelon ianbriketa) ke siang sadrish adhicharmiy varm se chashmoan ke koorm kavachavale phrem banate haian, yadyapi ab plaistikoan ke karan isaka prachalan kam ho gaya hai. ye sab kachhue aur inake atirikt any kee kul kriptodira varg mean rakhe jate haian.

pliurodira varg ke sab kachhue mithe jal mean rahanevale haian. podoknemis eksapaiansa khane ke kam mean ata hai aur isake aandoan se tel nikala jata hai. yah dakshin amarika mean paya jata hai. trayonikidi varg ke kachhue eshiya, aphrika aur uttari amarika ki nadiyoan mean pae jate haian. ye chhichhale pani mean mitti mean rahate haian. trayoniks fer aauks sanyukt rajy (amarika) mean paya jata hai. kaha jata hai, isaka maans hare kachhue ke maans se adhik svadisht hota hai.

makaragan (krokodilia) - ye chatushchhidr karoti anuvarg (dayapsida) mean rakhe jate haian. ye nadi mean rahate haian aur inamean kuchh bahut vishalakay hote haian. inake sharir ke oopar hote haian jo adhicharm ke siang ke saman kathor hone se banate haian. inake prishth par aur kuchh kuchh ke ur ke oopar bhi shalkoan ke niche haddi ke patt hote haian. inake kasherukadand mean sadharanat: 9 graiv (sarvikal), 11 (ya 12) prishthiy (darsal), 3 (ya 4) katideshiy (lanbar), 2 traik (kraisel), aur 35 (ya adhik) puchchhiy (k aaudail) kasherukaean hoti haian. khop di ki prishthiy aur parshviy haddiyoan mean chhote-chhote gadhe hote haian. praudh jantuoan mean parshvika aur lalatakiy asthiyaan ek ek hoti haian, yugmit nahian. upajanbh (maiksile), agrahanu (primaiksile) aur talavy asthi (pailataians)mean, aur bahutoan mean triveni (terigayads) mean bhi patt hote haian jinake bich mean milane se haddiyoan ka ek kathor patt ban jata hai aur is karan nak ka aantrik chhidr bahut door pichhe, khop di ke adhar par, hota hai.

karnapatah guha (tianpainik kaiviti) se grasani (phairiangs) mean patahapoor nal (yoostekiyan kainails) jate haian aur asapas ki haddiyoan mean vayu ke marg (eyar paisejez) jate haian.

gh diyal-gh diyal (krokodoils) hiansr aur prachand jantu haian aur b di-b di nadiyoan mean rahate haian. inamean kuchh manushy ke lie bhi bhayankar aur ghatak haian. ye bahut dinoan tak jivit rahate haian aur jivan bhar badhate rahate haian. ye dhvani bhi paida karate haian. aande ye baloo mean dete haian ya kinare ke chhote-chhote gadhoan mean.

ady gh diyal samudri the aur mahasarat yug mean pashchath‌ hi mithe pani mean rahanevale gh diyal milate haian. paramakar (pairasukiya) gan aur mesosukiya upagan ke urag vartaman kal ke gh diyaloan ke sadrish the, parantu ye lupt ho chuke haian. vartaman yug ke gh diyal, jo sab yusookiya upagan mean sthan pate haian, nakr (ailigetar), kuanbhir (kemain), makar prajati (krokodailas), gangamakar prajati (gaiviailis), aaustiolimas aur tomistoma haian. vartaman kal ke gh diyal kee kuloan mean vibhajit kie jate haian. gaiviailidikul ka gangamakar uttari bharat ki b di nadiyoan mean paya jata hai. yah machhali khata hai aur manushy ke lie hanikar nahian hai.

gangamakar ke jivashm (f aausils) shivalik paha d ki atinootan yug ki chattanoan mean milate haian. makar kul ke gh diyaloan ke jivashm uttar khatiyut yug tak rahate the, par ab ye yoorop se lupt ho chuke haian. makar prajati aphrika, dakshini, uttari astreliya aur ushn amarika mean paee jati hai. nakr ka sir chhota aur chau da hota hai. yah chin aur uttari amarika mean paya jata hai. kuanbhir madhy aur dakshini amarika mean milata hai.

gh diyaloan ki ganana chatushchhidrakaroti anuvarg mean hoti hai. inaki khop di mean do parshvashankhak khat (laitaral teanporal f aausi) aur do parshvashankhak vithikaean (arakeds) hoti haian. nil nadi (uttari aphrika) ka gh diyal manushy par akraman karata hai aur avasar prapt hone par manushy ko khata hai. isi karan nil ke asapas rahanevale log isase bahut bhayabhit rahate haian. prachin kal ke misranivasi is bhayankar jiv ki pooja karate the aur isako sooryoday ka pratik manate the. kuchh shaharoan mean to ye pale bhi jate the aur sone ke gahanoan se vibhooshit kie jate the. mrityu ke pashchath‌ shav sugandhamay oshadhiyoan mean rakhakar bhoogarbh sthit samadhisthan mean ga d diya jata tha, jis prakar vahaan ke raja log ga de jate the. yah gh diyal lagabhag 18 phut lanba hota hai.

bharat se astreliya tak b di nadiyoan ke jvar-nad-sangamoan mean ek gh diyal paya jata hai jo nil ke gh diyal se bhi adhik bhayankar aur hiansak haian. yah kabhi-kabhi sthal se door samudr mean tairata milata hai. yah 20 phut lanba hota hai.

bharat, malaya aur lanka ki nadiyoan mean ek aur gh diyal (magar) paya jata hai jo sadharanat: 12 phut se b da nahian hota aur darapok hota hai.

godhikanugan (laisaratiliya) - chhipakaliyoan (lizardh‌s) ki khop diyoan mean keval ek parshvashankhak khat hota hai aur yah ab bhi bhali-bhaanti nishchit nahian hai ki yah khat yuktachhidrakaroti (sinaipsida) ke khat ka samajat (homologas) hai, athava yah chatushchhidr karotiyoan ke oopari parshvashankhak khat ka samajat mana jata hai, to isake niche ki do haddiyaan jinase shankhakavithika banati hai, pashchanetrakotariy (post aaurbital) aur agragandasthi (skvaimosail) mani jaeangi. parantu yadi yah svikar kiya jae ki yah khat yuktachhidrakarotiyoan ke shankhak khat ke saman hai, to parshvashankhak vithika ko haddiyaan gandikiy (joogal) aur chatushk gandikiy (kvadretojoogal) mani jaeangi. kee vidvanoan ki yah dharana hai ki chhipakaliyoan ka vikas nyoozilaiand ke sphanadant (sfain aaud aaun) namak urag ke sadrish kisi chatushchhidrakaroti urag se hua. chhipakaliyoan ke ady poorvajoan ko khop di mean chatushchhidr karotiyoan ke saman do parshvashankhak khat aur do parshvashankhak vithikaean prastut thian, kiantu chatushkagandikiy haddi, jo gandika aur chatushkonasthi (kvadret) ke bich mean thi, kramash: chhoti hoti gee aur aant mean lupt ho gee. isi karan varmaman kal ki chhipakaliyoan ki khop di mean gandikasthi aur chatushkonasthi ek doosare se prithakh‌ haian aur nichala shankhakakhat, niche ki or vithika n hone ke karan, khula hua hai.

kuchh pranivijn is vichar ko svikar nahian karate. unaki dharana yah hai ki chhipakaliyoan ka vikas kisi aise urag se hua jisaki khop di mean ek hi parshvashankhak khat tha aur jo giri-karbanaprad-yugiy tanusarat prajati (areoselis) athava mahasarat yugiy parshvasarat (pliuros aauras) ke saman tha. us ady poorvaj ko khop di mean ek hi chau di parshvashankhak vithika thi jo niche ko or kramash: sankirn hoti gee. chhipakali ki khop di ke shankhak khat ke pichhe ki do asthiyoan ke vishay mean bhi matabhed hai. unamean se bahy haddi, ji gandika (joogal) ki or hai, agragandasthi (skavaimosail) samajhi jati hai. kuchh isaki parichatushkonasthi (pairakvadret) kahate haian, kuchh isaki poorvagragandasthi (proskavaimosail) samajhate haian aur kuchh chatushkayugiy (kvadreti joogal). doosari haddi ko, jo bhitar ki or hai, adhikaansh pranivijn uparishankhak (suprateanporal) kahate haian, parantu kuchh agragandasthi (skvaimosail) aur kuchh chipitasthi (taibular) bhi samajhate haian. is vivad ka nirnay bhi abhi poorn roop se nahian hua hai.

shh

chitr

baiped kainikuletas namak keval do pairoan ki krimi-chhipakali

yah meksikoan mean paee jati hai. kul lanbaee 10 ianch hoti hai.

chhipakali ka sharir patala aur lanba hota hai. yadyapi inake bahu aur pad hote haian, tathapi ye itane chhote aur durbal hote haian ki sharir ko dharatal se uthi huee sthiti mean rakhakar nahian chal pate. chalate samay yah sharir ko keval age dhakel sakate haian aur chadhane, khodane, aur chipakane ke bhi kam mean ate haian. sadharanat: hath aur pair mean paanch-paanch aanguliyaan hoti haian jinamean nakhar hote haian . kisi kisi mean to hath aur pair itane chhote hote haian ki chhipakali aisa saanp pratit hoti hai jisake sharir mean do jo di thooanth j de hoan. kaimisara aisi hi ek chhipakali hai. kootagodha (siudopas) aur sarpagodha (paigopas) mean pairoan ke avashesh to hote haian kiantu bahu sarvatha lupt ho ge haian. isake viruddh kairotiz mean keval bahu hote haian, pad nahian. apada prajati (eangvis), guptakshikarn prajati (eanfisabina) aur ainelitrॅpidi kul ki chhipakaliyoan mean bahu tatha pad donoan hi nahian hote aur ve dekhane mean saanp maloom hoti haian. sab chhipakaliyoan mean aans (pektoral) aur shroni (pelvik) mekhalaean hoti haian. inamean sadharanat: karnapatah guha aur karnapatah jhilli bhi hoti haian, keval guptakshikarn kul mean nahian. apada prajati (ainelitr aaupidi), krikalas prajati (kaimiliaauntidi) ityadi mean karnapatah jhilli ya to nahian hoti ya charm se dhaki hoti hai.

charm par siang ke saman k de adhivarmiy shalk hote haian jo charmapiandika (darmal paipili) ke oopar hote haian aur ek doosare par atichchhadit hote haian. marugodhika vansh (siansidi) aur apada kul (eangvidi) mean charmapiandika mean asthipatt (aaustiodarms) utpann ho jate haian jo niche ki asthiyoan se ju d jate haian. guptakshikarn kul ki chhipakaliyoan ka charm chikana aur shalkarahit hota hai. sir par ke shalk saanpoan ke shalk ke saman hote haian. adhicharm (epidarmis) ka bahmastar shalkoan ke sath sath niyatakalik roop se chhipakar gir jata hai, sadharanat: tuk de tuk de ke roop mean, parantu apada prajati ityadi mean sanpoorn ek khand mean.

shh

shh

draiko volaianz namak u danevali chhipakali

ise phlaiang draigan bhi kahate haian. yah maileyeshiya mean paee

jati hai. vayask ki lanbaee 8 se 10 ianch hoti hai.

pahali urosthik pasalivali kasheruka ke agevale sab kasheruk, graiv kasheruk mane jate haian. kati kasheruk ek ya do hote haian, trik kasheruk do hote haian aur puchchh kasheruk bahut se hote haian. trinaanjan vansh (igvainidi) ke kasheruk mean pri ar post-zaigifises ke atirikt saanpoan ke saman chapakhat (zaigraitra) aur chapasphan (zaigosfins) bhi hote haian. chhipakaliyoan ka khop di mean jatukapakshasthi (ailisfinaed), akshijatuk (aaurbatosfon aaued) aur jatukagrasthi (prisfin aaued) nahian hote. har ek mean ainieela, guptakshikarn kul aur krikalas prajati ka chho dakar ek jo di uparitriveni (epishterig aaued) haddi hoti haian jo parshvika (pairaital) se tri-aangika (terigoid) tak vistrit hoti hai. sadharanat: ek hi anukapal muandika (auksipital kaudail) hoti hai. jo mukhyat: adhar anukapal (besi-aksipatil) se utpann hoti hai, parantu jisako utpatti mean parshv-anukapal (eksaksipital) bhi bhag lete haian. kiantu guptakshikarn kul mean do anukapal muandikaean hoti haian. sadharanat: praudh avastha mean parshvikaean ju dakar ek ho jati haian parantu chhipakali mean ye alag alag ho rahati haian. lalat bhi kisi kisi mean ju dakar ek ho jate haian.

chhipakaliyoan mean lar granthiyaan nahian hotian, oshthagranthiyaan vidyaman rahati haian. agar-godhika aur krikalas (giragit) ke atirikt kisi chhipakali mean svaratar (vokal k aaurdoos) nahian hote. giragit aur kuchh agar-godhikaoan mean pheph doan ke pichhale bhag se aandhanal (daivartikular) nikalate haian jo aantarang (visara) ke bich mean p de rahate haian. saanpoan ke sadrish chhipakaliyoan mean donoan pheph de barabar n hokar chhote b de hote haian.

shh

shh

baisiliskal vittetas namak pattit chhipakali

isaka nivasasthan meksiko se ekvador tak

hai. poori lanbaee lagabhag 2 phut hoti hai.

chhipakaliyoan mean ek parshvika aang hota hai jisaki sanrachana netr sadrish hoti hai. is karan isako madhy netr (piniyal ai) kahate haian. yah khop di ke oopar charm ke niche hota hai aur isake oopar charm rangarahit hota hai. aisi dasha mean isake oopar ka adhicharmiy shalk svachchha (korniya) ke sadrish hota hai.

adhikaansh chhipakaliyaan aande deti haian, kiantu kuchh aisi bhi haian jo balajantu ko janm deti haian jaise jarayuj godhika (lasarta vaivipara), sookshmanetr apada (eangvis phraijiansis), jarayugodha prajati (seps), giragit (kamiliyan). aandoan ka shalk charm sadrish hota hai kiantu kisi kisi ka k da bhi hota hai. adhikaansh chhipakaliyaan hanikar nahian hoti. ve ki demako de khati haian.

uttar pradesh ke dehatoan mean vedar prajati (vairenas) ke bachchoan ko vishakhop da kahate haian aur yah kaha jata hai ki ye vishaile hote haian aur inake katane se manushy ki mrityu ho jati hai. yah asaty hai. vishagodhika (hilodarma) ke atirikt, jo meksiko aur airizona mean paee jati hai, kisi bhi chhipakali mean aj tak vishagranthiyaan nahian paee gee haian.

bharat aur malaya mean aisi kuchh chhipakaliyaan paee jati haian jo tho di door tak u d sakati haian jaise dreko volaianj. inake sharir ke donoan or charm jhillimay pallav (phlaips) ke roop mean vistrit rahata hai, jisaki sahayata se ye 60 phut ya kuchh adhik door tak visarpi (glaidiang) kul ki kuchh chhipakaliyaan hoti haian jinaki baisilisk kahate haian. prachin kal mean logoan ka vichar tha ki ye chhipakaliyaan b di vishaili haian. yah dharana bhi asaty hai.

sarp - sarpoan ki vishisht akriti, jisake karan ye turant pahachan lie jate haian, yah hai ki inake bahu tatha pad nahian hote. ye patale aur lanbe hote haian. inaki aankhoan mean prithakh‌ -prithakh‌ palak tatha inake sharir mean karnapatah guha aur trik nahian hote. kasheruk do hi shreni mean vibhajit kie jate haian, puchchhiy tatha agrapuchchhiy. zaigop aaufisiz ke atirikt inamean sandhiyojan (artikuleshan) ke lie chapasphan aur chapakhat hote haian. dvivenyasthiyaan (shevaran bons) nahian hotian, parantu puchchhakasheruk ke anuprasth pravardho ki avarohi shakhaean puchchhiy vahikaoan se vahi sanbandh rakhati hai jo dvivenyasthiyaan.

sarpoan ki khop di mean kee visheshataean paee jati haian. isamean aantarnetrakotariy pat (iantaraauptikal septam) aur uparitriveni (epipterig aaued) asthi nahian hoti. khop di ki agali aur madhy ki parshvabhittiyaan parshvika aur lalat ke pravardh (proses) se banati haian. isamean kalaantaral (faantanels) aur khat (f aausi) nahian haian. gandika (joogal) aur chatushkayugiy (kvadreto joogal) nahian hote aur pashch lalat tatha agr gandasthi (skvaimosail) nahian milate. adhar hanu (j aau) ki hanoochchhakhaean (remai) ek doosare ke sangam (sianfisis) par sayujyit nahian hotian, keval lachili snayuoan (ligaimeants) se bandhi hoti haian. parshvika ek hoti hai, jisake dahine or baean pravardh khop di ke tal par ek doosare se ju de hote haian.

adhar hanu mean keval chhah haddiyaan hoti haian, kiantu k aauron aaued kabhi-kabhi nahian hoti. adhikaansh vishahin sarpo mean upajanbh (maiksili), talavyasthi (pailatains), triveni (terigaeds) aur dantasthi (deantariz) par daant hote haian. chatushkonasthi agragandasthi se sandhibaddh (artikuleted) hoti hai, svayan khop di se nahian ju di hoti. zenopeltis aur ajagar (paithan) mean agragandasthi khop di ki parshvabhitti mean lagi hoti hai aur chatushakoannasthi svayan khop di se lagi pratit hoti hai, parantu any saanpoan mean nahian. pridakuvansh (vaiperido) mean upajanbh chhote hote haian. aur agralalat se gatishil vidhi se sandhibaddh hote haian. donoan upajanbhoan mean ek ek vish ke daant hote haian. jab muanh band rahata hai to vishadant pichhe ki or mu de rahate haian aur muanh ki chhat ke sath-sath rahate haian.

sarpo mean bahan aur asanmekhala nahian hoti aur adhikaansh mean pad aur shronipradesh bhi nahian hote. parantu ajagar kul (boidi), aandhasarpavansh (tifalapidi) aur zenopeltidi mean shronipradesh aur pad ke avasheshak milate haian.

sarpoan ka ahar - saanp apane ahar ko samoocha nigal jata hai. yah meandhak aur chhote-chhote kriantak (rodeants) ityadi ko khata hai. isake daant keval sharir ko pak de rahane ke kam ate haian. vishadhar sarpoan mean upajanbh-dantoan par age ki or ek khaanch (groov) hota hai. pridakuvansh (vaiperidi) mean upajanbh dantoan par khaanch nahian hota, parantu adhashcharm pichakari (haipodarmik sirianj) ki suee ke saman. oopari aur nichale jab de mean oshthagranthiyaan hoti haian. oopari oshthagranthiyaan ban jati haian. pridakuvansh mean vishagranthi ki nali vishadant ki j d par khulati hai, aur any vishadharoan mean muhan mean. jihva lanbi aur patali hoti hai aur agr do bhagoan mean vibhajit rahata hai. isamean jnaneandriyaan bahut hoti hai aur yah sparshag ka kam deti hai. avaskar (kloeka) mean mootrashay nahian hota. yah dh d aur pooanchh ki sandhi par hota hai. bayaan pheph da dahine ki apeksha chhota hota hai aur adhikaansh vishadhar saanpoan mean keval ek hi pheph da hota hai. ajagar apane shikar ko sharir ki lapet mean dabakar lanba aur patala kar mar dalata hai aur tab use nigalata hai. kuchh vishaile saanp shikar ko vish se marane ke bad nigalate haian, parantu adhikaansh saanp shikar ko jivit hi nigal jate haian. aankh ki palakean ek doosare se sayujyit hoti haian, isi karan saanp palakahin dikhaee p date haian.

sarpoan ki shreniyaan-saanp tin shreniyoan mean vibhajit kie jate haian. ek shreni mean aandhasarpavansh (tifl aaupidi), ajagar (boidi), leptofilopidi, amlidi, yooropeltidi aur zenopeltidi kul rakhe jate haian. boidi kul do upakuloan mean vibhajit hota hai-upakul boini aur paithonini. doosari shreni mean avishahi (kolyoobridi), krishnasarp (ilaipidi), jalasarp (haidrofidi) kul rakhe jate haian. avishahi kul (kolubridi) kee upakuloan mean vibhajit hota hai. ye haian aikrok aaurdino, k aaulubraini, daisipelitani, aianblisefalini, haumalopsini, dipsadom aaufini aur elakistodaantini. tisari shreni mean vaiperidi aur krotelidi kul ate haian.

aandhasarp kul (tiflapiti) ke sarp bil mean rahate haian aur nee aur purani duniya ke ushn pradeshoan mean pae jate haian. ye kadachith‌ hi 14 ianch se adhik lanbe hote haian. inake jab doan mean daant nahian ke barabar hote. ye kitoan ke dianbh aur dimak khate haian aur bahudha dimakoan ke ghoansaloan mean rahate haian. shronipradesh aur pad ke avasheshak charm ke niche chhipe pae jate haian. aandhasarp jati (tiflopas) sabase b di jati hai. ye sab vishahin hote haian.

leshtofilopidi kul ke saanp tiflopidi ki bhaanti bil mean rahanevale hauan aur chhote tatha chamakile hote haian. daant keval niche ke jab de mean hote haian. shronipradesh ke avashesh tiflopidi ke shronipradesh ke avashesh ki apeksha b de hote haian. leptofil aaupas jati eshiya, aphrika, amarika aur pashchimi hiand-dvip samooh mean paee jati hai.

ajagaravansh (paithanini) ke saanp vishalakay aur vishahin hote haian. ajagar (paithan) eshiya, malaya, aphrika aur astreliya mean milata hai. boinivansh ke saanp bhi b de b de aur vishahin hote haian. boa kanstriktar 8-10 phut aur kabhi kabhi 15 phut lanba hota hai. yah dakshini eshiya, ushn, amarika, uttari aphrika aur nyoogini mean paya jata hai.

ainilidi jati ke saanp sankhya mean bahut kam haian, keval lagabhag chhah jatiyaan. shronipradesh aur pad ke avashesh bahut chhote hote haian. ye lagabhag ek gaj lanbe hote haian or bil mean rahate haian. ye dakshini amarika, lanka, malay dvipasamooh aur iandochaina mean pae jate haian. ye vishahin hote haian. ilisia chamakadar, mooange ke rang ka lal hota hai aur ushn amarika mean paya jata hai. yooropeltidi jati ke saanp ainilidi ke saman hote haian, parantu inake sharir mean shroni aur pad ke avashesh nahian hote. ye bhi vishahin hote haian. zenopeltidi mean keval ek jati hai jo dakshini poorvi eshiya mean paee jati hai. ye saanp vishahin haian.

shh

chitr

korelas kookiyai namak vrikshavasi ajagar ka sir

yah ajagar patala tatha atyant krodhi hota hai. isaka

nivas dakshin amarika ka ushn katibandh hai. isaki

lanbaee lagabhag 7 phut hoti hai.

kolabridi kul ke saanp sankhya mean bahut haian-250 prajati aur 1,000 jati se adhik. aikrok aaurdini, kolubrini, desipeltini, aur aianblisefelidi jatiyoan ke saanp vishahin haian. h aaumal aaupsini ke saanpoan mean vishagranthi aur vishadant hote haian. parantu inaka vish bahut shaktishali nahian hota. yah dakshini eshiya, malay dvipasamooh, nyoogini aur uttari astreliya mean pae jate haian. dipsadom aaufini ke saanp vishaile hote haian, parantu inake vish ke daant jab doan (janbhoan) mean pichhe ki or hote haian. ye nee aur purani duniya ke garam deshoan mean pae jatean haian. elakistodaanti mean ek hi jati hai. isake vish ka daant bhi pichhe ki or hota hai. elapaidi ke sarp sab sarpoan se adhik vishaile haian. kalanag (kobra), karait, maanba, krishnasarp (blaik snek), chitr sarp (taigar snek) aur deth aidar sab isi kul mean ate haian. 30 prajatiyoan aur 150 jatiyoan se adhik ke sarp purani duniya mean milate haian. maikrooras (eelaips) amarika ke sanyukt rashtr aur ushn amarika mean milata hai. elapaidi jati ke sarpo ke muanh mean vish ke do daant hote haian, jo chhote hote haian aur oopari jab de (uparik janbh) mean age ki or hote haian. vishagranthi bahut b di hoti hai aur vish bahut shaktishali hota hai. haidrofilidi jati ke saanp samudri haian aur sab vishadhar haian. ye bahudha samudr ke kinare se lagabhag 1,000 mil tak ki doori par jhuand ke jhuand milate haian. inaki pooanchh chappoo (paidal) ki bhaanti hoti hai.

vaiperidi kul ke sarp purani duniya mean milate haian. inake vishadant bahut b de hote haian. aidar (yoorop), rasel ka vaipar (bharat), siangadar vaipar (aphrika ka marusthal), paf aidar (aphrika), gaiboon vaipar aur gaianda vaipar (rainosaras vaipar) sab isi kul ke sarp haian. inaka dh d bahut mota hota hai aur sir chapata aur trikonakar.

krautaianlidi mean pit vaipars sammilit haian. inake sir ke donoan or aankh aur nak ke chhidroan ke bich ek chhidr hota hai. ye nee aur purani donoan duniya mean pae jate haian. nee duniya mean lagabhag 50 jatiyaan aur purani duniya mean lagabhag 30 jatiyaan paee jati haian. ye saanp aphrika mean nahian milate. kuchh pit vaipars, jo chhote aur patale hote haian, vrikshoan par rahate haian. amarika ke raital snek, ushn amarika ka bush mastar aur feyar d laans isi kul mean ate haian. in sab sarpo ke vishadant b de b de hote haian.

shh

pit vaipar namak sarp ka sir

yah raital snek jati ka sarp uttari aur

dakshini amarika mean paya jata hai

paithan retikuletas duniya ka sabase b da saanp hai, jo poorvi bharat, malaya, barma, hiandachin aur philipains mean milata hai. yah 34 phut tak lanba hota hai. paithan malaras 25 phut tak lanba hota hai aur yah bharat, malaya aur java mean milata hai. ushn dakshini amarika ka ainak aaunda (yoonektes myurinas) 25 phut lanba hota hai aur astreliya ka paithan aimithistinas bhi lagabhag itana hi lanba hota hai. boa kaanstriktar (kaanstriktar) nee duniya mean paya jata hai. yah ainak aaunda se chhota aur dekhane mean bahut suandar hota hai. yah 15 phut tak lanba hota hai.

kolubridi kul mean aise bhi saanp haian jo vishaile hote haian, parantu ye hanikarak nahian hote, kyoanki inaka vish shaktishali nahian hota aur inake vish ke daant (ek ya anek) jab de mean pichhe ki or hote haian. jisase ye bhali-bhaanti kat nahian sakate. inake katane se inaka shikar stanbhit ho jata hai, jisase use nigalane mean subhida hota hai. krisopilia aaurnata isi prakar ka ek saanp hai jo bharatavarsh, barma, malaya, java, sumatra, borniyo aur dakshini chin mean milata hai. yah saanp ek gaj se chhota hota hai. isaka dh d mota hota hai aur pasaliyoan ke phailane se chau da aur chapata ho jata hai. yah chhipakaliyaan khata hai aur darane par u dakar bahut door pahuanch sakata hai. ushn amarika ka ek saanp siudo-boa kliliya hai. yah vishaile saanpoan par akraman karata hai, unako dabakar mar dalata hai aur apane se kuchh hi chhote vaiparoan tak ko nigal jata hai. vishadhar saanpoan ke katane ka isapar kuchh bhi prabhav nahian p data. disaf aaulidas taipas dakshini aphrika ka isi kul ka ek saanp hai, parantu isaka vish shaktishali hai aur isake katane se manushy mar jata hai.

yoorop mean sab vishadhar saanp vaiperidi kul ke haian aur ye sankhya mean bahut kam haian. vaipera aaursinai astriya mean bahut paya jata hai. isaka vish any vaipars ke vish ke saman shaktishali hota hai, parantu yah katata nahian hai aur isako bachche bahudha pak d lete haian.

bharatavarsh aur malaya mean vaipar bahut kam pae jate haian. vaipar ki utpatti aphrika mean huee hogi. vahaan sabase adhik sankhya mean nana prakar ke vaipar pae jate haian. yoorop ke vaiparoan ko inhian ka uttari phailav samajha jata hai. syoodosiraistiz parsikas baloo ka vaipar hai jo pharas mean paya jata hai. ekis vaipar arab aur bharat mean milata hai. bharatavarsh aur malaya mean rasel ka vaipar (rasels vaipar) paya jata hai. yah saanp bhayanak vishadhar hai. elapaidi kuchh ke saanp, jinamean kalanag (kobra) aur karait ate haian, eshiya bhar mean pae jate haian aur astreliya aur aphrika mean bhi. bharat aur malaya ka sabase bhayankar sarp phaniraj (kiang kobra-nea haina) hai. yah duniya ka sabase b da vishadhar saanp hai. yah keval vishahin sarpoan ka hi ahar karata hai. yah 12-15 phut tak lanba hota hai aur balavan tatha phurtila. isaka vish bahut shaktishali hota hai aur yah shatru ko dekhate hi akraman karata hai. isamean sandeh nahian ki yah duniya ka sabase bhayankar jangali jantu hai.

phaniraj (kiang kobra) ke atirikt poore eshiya mean keval ek any kobra paya jata hai. yah sadharan nag (kobra) bharat, malaya, chin aur philipains mean milata hai. is saanp ki keval ek jati (neja neja) hai, parantu isaki bahut si upajatiyaan haian. nag (kobra) paanch chhah phut lanba hota hai aur isake sar par phan (hud) hota hai. isaka tisara adhyoshthiy varm (supralebiyal shild) aankhoan se aur nasya varm (nezal shild) se mila rahata hai, jisase yah sugamata se pahachana ja sakata hai. karait bharat, barma, malay dvipasamooh, tatha dakshini chin mean paya jata hai. yah adhikatar saanp khata hai, parantu medhak, chhipakali aur chhote-chhote stanadhari bhi isake ahar haian. isaki chhah sat jatiyaan milati haian jo sab bangaras prajati ke aantargat haian. karait ka kasheruk (vartebral) shalk parshv shalk ki apeksha bahut k da hota hai, jisase yah sugamata se pahachana ja sakata hai. hemibangaras, kailofis aur d aauliolofis bhi vishadhar saanp haian jo eshiya mean pae jate haian, parantu katate bahut kam haian. eshiya mean raital snek nahian hote, parantu aigakistrod aaun aur trimarisyooras, jo krotailidi kul ke sadasy haian, yahaan milate haian.

gartar sarp aur koral saparh aphrika mean milate haian, ye chhote aur chamakile hote haian tatha vishadhar hote hue bhi kam katate haian. poore aphrika mean nag (kobra) milate haian. inaki ath ya adhik jatiyaan milati haian. nea naigrik aaulis apana vish ath phut tak pheank sakata hai aur bahudha apane shikar ki aankhoan mean vish pahuancha deta hai. nea haiee misr desh mean paya jata hai aur nea nivia dakshini aphrika mean. seped aaun hemakeds sabase chhota nag (kobra) hai. yah bhi vish pheank sakata hai, kiantu chhah phut se adhik door nahian. maanba (deandraispis) aphrika ka sabase adhi prasiddh saanp hai. isaka vish vishesh roop se ghatak hai aur yah b di phurti se akraman karata hai. yah bahut patala hota hai. hare maanba chhah se ath phut tak lanbe hote haian aur kale maanbe 12 phut tak. ye pe doan par rahate haian. aphrika ke vaipars mean sabase adhik bhayanak baitis gaibonika hai. yah b de daravane akar ka hota hai. yah char phut lanba hota hai aur isaka vyas sat ianch hota hai. isaka sir manushy ki char aanguliyoan ki chau daee ke barabar hota hai. isake vish ke daant lanbe hote haian aur vish atyant ghatak, jisase isake katane se prani usi samay mar jata hai. isake vish mean himotaksin aur nyooro taksin donoan hote haian, visheshakar saans mean sahayak maansapeshiyoan ka vahikaprerak tantr. sadharan vaiparoan mean keval himot aauksin hi hota hai, nyoorot aauksin nahian hota ya kam hota hai. kahate haian, vaitis naisik aaurnis ka vish vaitis gaib aaunika ke vish se bhi adhik ghatak hota hai. yah nadi ke kinare paya jata hai aur is karan isako rivar jaik kahate haian. aphrika mean inake atirikt bhi bahut se vishaile saanp milate haian.

sanyukt rajy (amarika) ke vishadhar saanp kee prakar ke haian. vahaan raital snek, k aauparahed, vatar maukasin aur koral snek pae jate haian. raital snek, k aauparahed aur maukasin ye tinoan prakar ke sarp pit vaipar haian aur kr aautailidi kul mean rakh jate haian. raital sneh turant pahachane ja sakate haian. inaki pooanchh ka aantim bhag kuchh ju di huee aangoothiyoan ke akar ka hota hai. yahaan kayabhitti ke aandar kuchh chhote-chhote asanbaddh puchchhakasheruk hote haian jo pooanchh hilane par ek vishesh dhvani utpann karate haian. koral snek nag (kobra) aur karait ke saman vishaile mane jate haian. inake vish ka prabhav tantrika keandr par p data hai. maikrooras falavias ek prakar ka koral snek hai; yah adhikatar chhote saanpoan aur chhipakaliyoan ko khata hai. raital snek bahut prakar ke milate haian, kiantu adhikaansh prajatiyaan kr aautailas ki jatiyaan haian. kraantailas aidamaiantias nau phut tak lanba hota hai. isaka sir tin ianch chau da hota hai aur vish ke daant tin char ianch lanbe. chhah phut jantu ka bhar chhah se ath ser tak hota hai. isaki ganana duniya ke atyant ghatak sarpoan mean hai. kr aautailas h aauridas bhi isi prakar ka ek ghatak saanp hai kiantu uttari kratailas haridas bahut kam akraman karata hai. dakshin ke ye saanp b de hote haian aur bhayanak bhi. madhy aur dakshini amarika mean keval ek jati ka raital snek milata hai, parantu pit vaipar bahutayat se milate haian. ye sab bthroa aaups prajati mean ate haian. bushamastar ki ek jati paee jati hai jisako laikisis kahate haian. yah jantu 12 phut lanba hota hai. bthroa aauks aitr aauks ka vish b di shighrata se prabhav dalata hai. yah raktakoshaoan tatha rakt ki naliyoan ko nasht karata hai aur ghav ke charoan or ke aangoan ko gala dalata hai.

astreliya ke sarp adhikaansh vishaile haian. duniya ke any bhagoan mean vishahin sarp vishadharoan ki apeksha bahut adhik haian, parantu astreliya mean dasha isake viparit hai. yahaan ke kee ek elapains namak sarp itane chhote haian aur inake vishadant itane chhote haian ki ye bahut kam hani pahuanchate haian. parantu yahaan ke b de sarp atyant vishaile haian. syoodekis parafiriaikas ek ghatak sarp hai, parantu isaka vish auro ki apeksha kam shaktishali hai. notekis skyootetas astreliya ka sabase bhayankar aur ghatak sarp hai. isaka vish duniya ke any sab sarpoan ke vish se adhik shaktishali aur ghatak hai, parantu yah kam matra mean banata hai, kyoanki is saanp ki vishagranthiyaan bahut chhoti hoti haian. akaianthophras aiantarktikas, jisako astreliya mean deth aidar kahate haian, vaipar ki bhaanti ka saanp hai. yah do phut lanba hota hai, parantu isaka sir b da hota hai aur isake vish ke daant notekis skyootets ke vishadant se b de hote haian. yah bhi bahut ghatak saanp hai.

sarpoan ki utpatti-aisa mana jata hai ki sarpoan ki utpatti bil mean rahanevali chhipakaliyoan se huee hai. yadi yah dharana saty hai, to yah manana p dega ki sarpoan mean shankhakachhadi (kanapati ki chhat) ekadam lupt ho gee aur sab shankhak khat khul ge haian. jo haddi chatushkonasthi ko kapal se milati hai vah agragandasthi (skvaimasail) hai, ya uparishankhak (suprateanporail) ya chipitasthi (taibular).

yuktachhidrakaroti (sinaipsida) aur chatushchhidrakaroti (daiaipsida)-achhidrakaroti mahagan (ainaipsida) se yuktachhidrakaroti aur chatushchhidrakaroti utpann hue). yuktachhidrakaroti ka ek mukhy pratinidh hai thirom aaurfa jisaki khop di mean ek shankhak khat netrakotarapashch (post aaurbibal) aur gandika (joogal) ke bich tha. shitasarat (pelikos aauriya) aur dainosefaliya mean yahi dasha vartaman hai. parantu pashchath‌ ke yuktachhidrakarotiyoan mean yah khat oopar ki or phailata gaya, yahaan tak ki usaki oopari sima parshvika ho gee. yah dasha dvishvadantagan (daisinod aaunshiya) aur stanidantagan (thiriyod aaunshiya) mean milati hai aur un stanadhariyoan mean bhi jo stanidantagan se vikasit hue. stanidantagan ka stanadhariyoan mean vikas hone mean shankhak khat bahut b da ho gaya aur agralalat, pashchalalat, netrakotarapashch aur chatushkayugiy kramash: lupt ho ge. chipitasthi lupt ho gee ya parshvika se sayujyit ho gee. pashchaparshvikaean, aantaraparshvika ke roop mean shesh rah gee jo bahudha adhyanukapal se sayujyit ho jati hai. pashch khand-khat ka abhilopan ho gaya aur parshvik tatha aangragandasthi adhik phail gee. minasarat gan (ikthiyos aauriya) mean bhi ek hi shankhak khat tha. ye machhali ke sadrish urag the jo samudr mean rahate the aur lupt ho chuke haian. ye raktashm yug se khatiyut yug tak jivit rahe. inake jivashm bharat, astreliya, nyoozilaiand, yoorop, amarika aur aphrika mean milate haian. inamean se b de 30 ya 40 phut tak lanbe the. inake bahu pad fliparoan (tairane mean sahayak aangoan) ke sadrish the aur inaki haddiyaan vichitr thian. lanbi haddiyaan (pragandika, hyoomaras, oorvika (fimar), bahishprakoshthika (rediyas) ityadi chhoti aur chau di thian. kisi-kisi mean ath ya nau aanguliyaan thian aur aangulasthi (faileanjez) bahut si. lalat vithika (teanporail araked), agragandasthi (skvaimosail), uparishakhank (suprateanporail) aur chatushkayugiy (kvadretojoogal) ki bani thi. uparishankhak khat (suprateanporail fas aau) ki sima parshvika (pairaeetal), agragandasthi (skvaimosail), pashchalalat (postaphraantal) se bani thi. tuand (snaut) lanba tha aur netrakotar (aaurbit) b de-b de.

chatushchhidrakarotiyoan mean do shankhak khat aur do parshvashankhak vithikaean (latarail teanporail arkeds) hoti haian. inamean palyabhagan (riankosifeliya), makaragan (krokodiliya), bhimasaratagan (dainos aauriya), s aauriskiya aur arnithiskiya ityadi ate haian. sabase ady chatushchhidrakaroti jo abhi tak mila hai vah ulookhaladant (yangina) prajati hai, jo dakshini aphrika ke giriyugin staroan mean paya gaya hai. yah nyoozilaiand ke sphanadant (sfinod aaun) se milata julata hai. palyabhagan ka pratinidhitv karanevala yah sphanadant aj bhi jivit hai, shesh sab lupt ho chuke haian.

bhimasarat - bhimasaratagan raktashm yug se khatiyut yug tak jivit rahe aur ab sab lupt ho chuke haian. inake jivashm yoorop, eshiya, aphrika, amarika, astreliya aur maidegaiskar mean milate haian. kauanps aaugnathas billi ke barabar tha, aur megalos aauras hathi ke barabar. megalos aauras yoorop aur amarika mean rahata tha. aitalaiantos aauras 115 phut lanba tha aur br aaunto s aauras 60 phut. igvainod aaun lagabhag 30 phut lanba tha. stegos aauras ka sir bahut chhota tha aur bahu bahut phaili thi. isake sharir par be di haddiyoan ka kavach tha. yah 28 phut lanba tha.

u danevale urag-teros aauriya u danavale urag the. inake jivashm (fausil) avaramahasarat yug (loar layas) se khatiyut (kriteshas) yug tak milate haian. apane bahy lakshanoan mean ye pakshiyoan ke saman the, parantu inake par nahian the. inaki bahu b di thi aur aant:prakoshthiki aanguli (alnar dijit) bahut lanbi thi jisapar charm ki jhalar (potejiyal ekspaishan) adharit thi.

panne ki pragati avastha

adhar

prarambhik

madhyamik

poornata

shodh

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